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What is the Third World? -- Third World is a contested term! (^) Classification: First World, Second World, Third World o (^) First World: US and its allies, NATO, capitalist, liberal democracies o (^) Second World: communist countries o (^) Third World: (^) Terms: Developed – Developing; Advanced –Traditional; Civilized –Uncivilized/Barbaric; North – South; Global North -- Global South; The Other World; More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) –Less Economically DCs (LEDCs); Majority World -- Minority World (^) Where did the term come from? o (^) Came out of the context of the Cold War (rivalry between the East and the West) o (^) Came from the French, meant to be a term of empowerment (^) Definition: How is it used? ---the term was originally used to empower the people o (^) Context: What meaning(s) does it convey? o (^) Today, the third world often means… chaos, corruption, poverty, less educated, cultured, industrially underdeveloped, lack of infrastructure, dependent on developed nations, people of color, political corruption, undernourishment, civil war o (^) (From movie) people from the third world are often seen as... (^) Hungry, in great need, disabled in some way (^) Charities stress the helplessness of people
(^) Characterizing the Third World o (^) (1) Dependence on Western Powers (since when?) o (^) (2) Delayed Modernization o (^) (3) Population Explosion (^) Partially based on Western health care (^) Where do people live? Lots of people from the Third World live in urban areas o (^) (4) Unequal Distribution of Wealth (most people live on less than $1 per day) o (^) Marginalization of Third World cultures o (^) Other ways of being? (^) Characteristics of "More Developed" POLITICAL Systems o (^) Concentration of power in the Central State (^) Established government: constitution, laws, etc. (^) Legitimate, stable o (^) "Modern" Forms of Political Organization (^) Organized institutions: legislatures, etc. (^) Principles of rationality and efficiency (Western concepts) o (^) "Modern" Forms of Political Behavior (^) Identity and loyalty to the political system and nation-state (^) Widespread political activity (participation) o (^) Expanded capabilities of political behavior (^) Better able to generate support, respond to the population, etc. (^) More stable, coherent, and efficient system (^) Characteristics of "More Developed" SOCIAL Systems o (^) The ORGANIZATIONAL dimension: Emphasis on specialization, and interdependency of roles and functions
o (^) The TECHNOLOGICAL dimension o (^) The ATTITUDINAL dimension: Dominated by increased knowledge, rationality, secular values, and individualism (^) Characteristics of "More Developed" ECONOMIC Systems o (^) Broad range of production of goods: production of finished goods; use of complex technology o (^) Industrialized economy o (^) Relatively autonomous decision-making o (^) Relatively adequate standard of living (^) Conflicting Values/Ideologies o (^) Modernization vs. Traditionalism o (^) Individualism vs. Collectivism o (^) Materialism vs. Spiritualism o (^) Centralization vs. Decentralization o (^) Moral Values vs. Opposed Moral Values (^) What were the characteristics of these early colonial states? (^) How did this colonialism affect the histories of the Americas? (^) Why did North America, South America, and the Caribbean turn out so differently? (^) 3 Reasons to Discuss Colonialism o (^) Created links between different parts of the world o (^) Nature of colonial power relations: Basis for the North-South relationship today o (^) Varied colonial experience based on (^) The colonial power (^) Pre-existing social, political, and economic structures in the colony (^) Timing of colonial encounter (^) Colonialism: the economic, political, social, and cultural intrusion and imposition of one set of peoples on another thru the use of state power o (^) A political, economic, and social system o (^) Power and domination o (^) Direct control (^) Imperialism: the process and spread of domination of a state or people over another (^) What is the difference between imperialism and colonialism? o (^) Imperialism doesn’t have to use state power o (^) Both are power relations, colonialism can be a method of imperialism o (^) Empirical power can use colonialism as a method o (^) Colonialism means direct foreign control History of Colonialism: 2 waves of European Imperialism (^) (1) The Age of Sail (1450 -- early 1800s) o (^) Period of EXPLORATION and CONQUEST o (^) 1st initiative by Portugal followed by Spain, Netherlands, Britain, France o (^) Intense RIVALRY (struggle among powerful states for global influence) o (^) Policy of MERCANTILISM: Early form of capitalism, Zero-sum game o (^) By mid-1500s the globe integrated into one vast trade system o (^) Plantation economy and slavery o (^) Triangular Trade: estimated 9-11 million Africans forcibly transported to the New World colonies (^) Fig. 7.1 Capital Flows in Triangular Trade, 1500-
(^) Amassed great wealth and controlled much of the banking system, many mortgages on personal property, and much of the land (^) Ex. Bartolome de las Casas (?)
Spanish Colonial Rule o (^) Castilian institutions o (^) Centralized, authoritarian governments o (^) Colonial governments filled with Spaniards o (^) Hispaniola --1st experiment in colonial rule (^) Economic o (^) Spain discouraged economic development o (^) Concentrated on extraction and export of raw materials, particularly gold and silver (^) The Encomienda System o (^) Huge land grants given to conquistadores o (^) Designed to use the native peoples and the land on which they lived o (^) The encomienda took responsibility for CHRISTIANIZING the natives (^) Had virtually unlimited authority o (^) Subordinate status of the peasant and agricultural laborer: (^) Was expected to approach the patron with eyes cast down, bowing and scraping (^) Social o (^) Peninsulares: immigrants from Spain, deemed "pure" Spaniards and given preferential treatment by the crown o (^) Creoles: Spanish descendants born in the New World o (^) Mestizos: from intermarriage between Spanish and Indians o (^) Mulattoes: of mixed Spanish and African blood o (^) Zambos: of mixed African and Indian blood (^) The lowest classes were the Indians, free Africans, and Africans in that order (^) Members of these groups were discriminated against in education, employment, etc. Caribbean and Colonialism (^) Dominance of Britain, France, and the Netherlands (^) 1960s: most of the Caribbean-basin colonies achieved independence (^) Map: Colonial Latin-American Political Organization; Latin America in 1830; Contemporary Latin America Africa (^) Intro o (^) Stereotyping: dark continent, land of primitives—cannibals, tribalism o (^) Diversity: geography, population (^) Above and below the Sahara: most people usually think 'Africa' refers to sub- Saharan Africa (not Egypt, etc.) o (^) Location: Equator, most tropical of continents, longest rivers, largest deserts o (^) Prone to ecological disasters: desiccation, drought
o (^) 2/3 of population in sub-Saharan region --forced to live in more fertile areas o (^) Of all the worlds known languages (1000), over 1/3 spoken in Africa (^) Regions o (^) North Africa: at geographical crossroads with Europe and Asia (^) Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt o (^) Central Africa: no shared common past, French predominant o (^) East Africa: Sudan to Tanzania and islands in the South, Area of Great Rift Valley o (^) Southern Africa o (^) Western Africa: Gold Coast (^) Africa and Colonialism: Slave Trade (1451 -- 1833) o (^) Disintegration of communities o (^) Destruction of human and productive forces: destroyed traditional technologies o (^) Forced export of practitioners: (^) Superior mining skills to extract gold and silver in Americas (^) Agricultural skills for plantation economies o (^) Wealth and weapons in hands of a few o (^) Slave trade different from African norms (in Africa, slaves had more respect and freedom) (^) Commodification of human beings, linked to development of capitalism (^) Africa lost between 50-160 million people (^) Colonialism in Africa o (^) Age of Exploration (^) Mungo Park -- Niger in 1795 (^) David Livingston -- Cape Town 1841, Botswana 1849, Victoria Falls 1855 o (^) Missionaries o (^) Entrepreneurs and trading companies (^) Cecil Rhodes o (^) Scramble for Africa (1870s -- 1880s) (^) Berlin Conference, 1884 -- 1885: division of Africa (^) Cut across ethnic groups, kingdoms, historically linked regions (^) No representatives from Africa (^) Use of force --technology of weaponry Types of Colonial Rule (3, but some say 4) (^) (1) Indirect Rule: ruled thru an intermediary; in exchange for becoming part of the colonial structure, a chief was given protection, a salary, a house, and numerous gifts o (^) When there were no tribes or chiefs, they created chiefs o (^) Associated with British: in Tanganyika, where Germans preceded the British, entirely new "chiefs" and "tribes" were created where none existed before o (^) Consequences: (^) Traditional culture tend to be remain (^) Politics of "divide and rule" (^) Reinforced separate ethnic identities (^) (2) Direct Rule: associated with French and its assimilation policy, long-term view was that the colonies would eventually become integral parts of France, highly centralized and governed from Paris thru the governor. Consequences: o (^) Eliminated most of the traditional structures and institutions
(^) Treaty of Nanjing (1842) o (^) Forced China to accept agreement guiding Chinese relations with foreign states until 1943 o (^) Release Korea, Vietnam, and Burma & placed Hong Kong under British command (^) Middle East o (^) Region (^) Strategic Location: land bridge, waterways (^) Strategic Resources: oil, water (^) Vast Diversity: populations, conditions of life o (^) Culture and Religion: (^) Birthplace of world 3 monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christian, Islam (^) Muhammad and Islam (7th Century) (^) Islamic civilization concurrent with Christian medieval period in Europe (^) Arab culture made major contributions to world literature, philosophy, historiography, art, and science (^) Not all Arabs are Muslim! Arabs all have the Arabic language in common. (^) The Ottoman Empire (1453--1918) o (^) Ruled diverse people: system of religious and cultural autonomy o (^) Religious toleration: institutionalized sectarian separation o (^) European colonialism (^) European scramble for Africa and Asia (^) Decline of the Ottoman Empire o (^) 2 main rivals: Britain and France (^) French: allies to Ottoman Turks against Austria (^) Interest in area invaded by Russia o (^) So… (^) Annexed large territories in North Africa: Algeria (1830), Tunisia (1883), Morocco (1906--1912) (^) Had formal ties with the Levant : Syria and Lebanon o (^) Britain: (^) Need to control strategic waterways and choke points including: the Strait of Gibraltar, the Turkish Straits, the isthmus of … (^) Napoleon in Egypt The Road to Independence (^) What's in a term? … Decolonization or National Liberation?(historical movement or a process?) o (^) Decolonization: transfer of power from empire to nation-state, a Western term (^) "surrender of external political sovereignty…" o (^) National Liberation: a Post-Colonial Term o (^) "Push out" -- "liberation struggle" vs. "Pull out" -- deliberate preparation/abrupt withdraw by colonial state The Latin American Experience (^) 1st of the regions to be colonized, 1st to gain independence (^) Nationalism: o (^) Manifested as a sense of "AMERICANISM" o (^) Grew rapidly after the 1750s in response to a power vacuum in Spain (Spain was losing its power, French (and US) Revolution) o (^) View of government as something foreign: (^) CREOLES & PENINSULARES --rising tensions
(^) Creoles had limited access to the highest levels of State and Church (^) Creole class is controlling the military, but they don’t want those below them to gain power; Creoles controlled the independence movement o (^) Military: more Creoles were allowed to enter higher ranks, emerges as "TRUE" NATIONAL INSTITUTION o (^) Creoles (^) Feared fundamental changes that might threaten their interests and positions (^) Desired REFORM & REVOLUTION (^) Usurped the more radical national efforts of [lower classes] (^) Wars of Independence colored by US presence—The Monroe Doctrine (1823): US would stay out of Western hemisphere… (^) Post WWII o (^) Beginning in Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa o (^) India o (^) Ghana: 1st independent black African state, 1957 Factors Shaping Politics of National Liberation Movements (^) Time Period: Pre-WWI and WWII &Post-WWII (^) Region/Hemisphere --US and Monroe Doctrine (^) Type of Colonial Rule and Process of Decolonization: varied and diverse o (^) Gradualism o (^) Violent struggle (^) "Settler" Colonialism: size of white European settler community o (^) Struggle against both the imperial power and the settler community o (^) Example: Algeria, South Africa, US (^) Algeria: Goal was National independence thru… (^) The restoration of the Algerian state, sovereign, democratic, and social, within the framework of the principles of Islam (^) The preservation of a fundamental freedoms without distinction of race or religion o (^) Case of Brazil? --the prince that was ruling Brazil was actually living in Brazil (rare) (^) Nature of Nationalism o (^) Nationalism is a constructed identity, and colonialism played a great role in the construction of national identities o (^) Nationalism in the Third World is fundamentally anti-colonialism and anti-imperialism o (^) Diversity in nationalist movements: Elite, ethnic, cultural, peasant-based, mass-based (^) Cold War and Superpower Politics (^) Nature of Nationalist Leadership: older vs. younger generation, ideas and personalities (^) Ideology, Goals and Strategies of Movements o (^) World view and perceptions of reality o (^) Conception of change o (^) Vision
Legacies of Colonialism (^) Economic o (^) Fragile economies: cash crops o (^) Capital drain
o (^) Private ownership (individuals control the land and the means of production) o (^) The market o (^) Profit motive as driving force (what does this mean for markets like electricity?) o (^) Investment (putting money back into the economy) o (^) Accumulation and Expansion: production and consumption; space/geography o (^) Trade (internally and externally/internationally) o (^) Money o (^) Supporting political, cultural, and social relations and frameworks (^) Ways of looking at CAPITALISM over time o (^) By dominant activity: from merchant to industrial to financial capitalism o (^) By nature of the market: from competitive to monopoly capitalism o (^) By firm ownership: from owner to managerial capitalism o (^) By technology and social regulation: from mass production (Fordism) to flexible production (post-Fordism) o (^) By technology and culture: mass production (modern) to consumerist late capitalism (post modern) (^) Values and Ideologies of Development: historical perspective o (^) Prior to the 18th Century: Traditional Conservatism (^) Fixed/Ascribed status (^) No idea of progress and development (^) Inequality as inevitable (^) Poverty linked to the victim o (^) Role of colonies influenced by (1) mercantilism and (2) first wave of colonialism... (^) Rise of Classical Liberalism o (^) Enlightenment ideas o (^) Progress and development o (^) Role of knowledge, rationality, industry, and education to improve one's lot o (^) Similar progress for societies and nations—economic growth and industrialism (^) Thus, focus on creating conditions for wealth and progress o (^) Role of Adam Smith -- idea of "the Invisible Hand" (government should not be involved, no regulation) Smith said if you allow people to maximize their self-interest then supply and demand will move to equilibrium (the invisible hand is the market) (^) Before Smith there was Mercantilism—only few could engage in economic activity, the crown granted monopolies to certain companies within their industry with charters o (^) Role of David Ricardo -- "Law of Comparative Advantage": countries should produce what they specialize in making (^) But what if 50 countries produce the same thing? o (^) Role of Locke (property and industry) Contemporary Liberalism (^) Emphasis was mostly on the presently developed countries (^) Role of colonies influenced by o (^) Classical liberal political economy --era of laissez-faire: free trade o (^) 2nd wave of Colonialism (^) Note: Contemporary Liberalism had its roots before WWII, but its rise was after WWII The World Political Economy Post-1945: qualitatively different from before (^) Rise of Contemporary Liberalism, Keynesianism
o (^) Role of government intervention (as good?), need to regulate and some control (^) Rise of New Liberal International Economic Order o (^) Institutionalization of international economic cooperation (especially after the Great Depression) o (^) Multilateralism o (^) Bretton Woods financial institutions: UN, IMF, IBRD, GATT (^) In text: creation of UN system (IMF, IBRD, AND GATT are all part of it) (^) UNCTAD: UN Conference on Trade and Development (^) Developing countries pushed for its establishment to help them gain economic power, used UNCTAD to push their demands on the North (^) Then Regan shifted power from UNCTAD to the IBRD (^) Note the connection between economics and politics/ government (power) (^) Growth of World Economy o (^) Global GDP: 5% in 1950-- o (^) Variations across regions o (^) Widening gap between rich and poor (countries) (^) Growth in number of MNCs/TNCs o (^) Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) --more and more FDI is controlled by private entities, countries depend on FDI (^) Change in composition and direction of international trade o (^) Intra-industrial trade among industrialized economies constituting majority of aggregate world trade (^) Reasons for growing focus on developing states o (^) Emergence of newly independent nations: increased numbers o (^) Economic: areas of vast natural resources and actual or future markets (emerging markets) o (^) Strategic: Cold War (^) Competition for power and influence (^) Private investment and economic growth to promote stability and anti- communism o (^) The developing world presented an opportunity to try out new policy prescriptions (^) example: Latin America --structural adjustment programs o (^) Availability of new technology and funding o (^) Communication and travel (^) Text: link between liberal and radical views o (^) Similarities (^) Human beings as equal (^) Inequality as a result of shortcomings in the system (^) Achieve equality (individual and country level) o (^) Differences (^) Means to accomplish change (^) Goals --degree of equality, etc. (^) Not all countries have had the same path to development!
(^) Bretton Woods Institutions: To promote stable economic growth within a Capitalist system
(^) Build industrial base --manufacturing sector (^) Protection of infant industries that supply manufactured goods for domestic market (^) Use of tariffs, import quotas, subsidies (^) Create employment opportunities --mass production (^) Means to acquiring modern technology (^) Role of the State --strong role in the economy (^) Problems (^) Capital intensive (^) Costly to import capital goods (^) Relatively small local markets (^) Problem of accessing technology: Cost, Inappropriate technology (^) Stagnated agriculture (^) Produced new kind of dependency: MNCs took over many areas of production o (^) (2) Export-Oriented Industrialization (EOI) (^) Developed in late 1960s, early 1970s in East Asia: Asian Tigers (^) Main elements of EOI (^) Production of industrial goods for export: development of manufacturing sector (^) Strong role of the state --state planners: o (^) Shaped manufacturing o (^) Provided incentives o (^) Assisted in research and development (^) Influence of US advisors (^) Cold War provided unique circumstances: South Korea and Taiwan received massive amounts of aid from US (^) Led to share of global manufacturing 19% to 37% in 1960- (^) Problems (^) Cold War (^) Heavy dependence on US market --increasing resistance (^) Economic, social, and ecological costs o (^) Repressive and authoritarian governments o (^) Low wages and poor labor conditions o (^) Loss of traditions (^) Pressure on resources: Costly inputs for development (oil and raw materials) (^) Quote: from Nehru about India (^) Socialism: Appeal linked to… o (^) Focus on equality and social justice (^) Needs of population prioritized (^) Particularly attractive in Latin America and parts of Africa o (^) Change could free Third World from yoke of dependency o (^) Centralized state control (^) National direction (^) Remove vagaries of the market (^) Decisions can be made on basis of need and not on ability to pay
o (^) Socialist economies made strides in reducing inequalities o (^) Extensive adult literacy program and greater educational opportunities (^) 3 Categories of Socialist Countries --Kilmister o (^) (1) Where the state was only actor strong enough to direct development (^) Separate from the colonial struggle (^) Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Mongolia o (^) (2) Where socialist ideas were key to struggle for national liberation from colonial rule -- Angola, Mozambique (^) Korea and Vietnam: response to other external forces (^) Central America and Caribbean: (^) Cuba and Nicaragua: in response to US hegemony and dependency o (^) (3) States adopting strong forms of state planning , but not formally adopting a socialist route (^) India under Nehru (2/23) (^) African Socialism: attempts by some to adapt socialist models to African realities (^) Draw on “real” African roots –not Soviet-style class struggle (^) Julius Nyerere, Leopold Senghor o (^) Capitalism and class divisions were not a part of African culture, they were introduced by European colonizers o (^) Ideas of: (^) Communal ownership of land and natural resources (^) Tradition of collectively working on the land o (^) (Nyerere was big on the push for self-reliance) (^) Tanzania: Ujama (means family root?) (^) Algeria, Ghana, Mali, Guinea (^) Is socialism still an attractive model of development? What would you do as a leader? There are 2 main models of development: modernization approach and structuralist theory Modernization Approach: Developed in US (1950s-1960s) [Western perspective] Context: ideological competition between US and USSR Elements of Modernization Approach o (1) Based on liberalism (win-win situation, everybody wins) Economic internationalism (also behavioralism) o (2) Development defined in relation to modernity Linear path measured by growth towards MODERNITY Modernization as successive stages of gradual change from traditional agricultural society to modern, rational and industrial one Economic growth and industrialization o (3) Third World can achieve development like developed world o (4) Problems stem from INTERNAL/domestic characteristics Administrative inefficiency: inadequate (or lack of) key institutions Weak legal systems Insufficient mobilization of domestic resources Lack of values/attitudes conducive to modernization Prevailing traditional cultural patterns and behavior [collectivism rather than individualism]
o Underdevelopment: process of structural distortion , economies partially developed in a way that enhances their economic value NOT to their own citizens but to the developed countries! Underdevelopment is a CONSEQUENCE of expansion of capitalism o Development of some countries occurs at the expense of others Unequal and combined development of the world economy [dos Santos?] o National elites act in concert by using their control of state power to protect interests of multinational capital Dependence: “a situation in which the economy of certain countries is conditioned by the development and expansion of another economy to which the former is subjected” [contrast with Rostow] o Center-periphery relationship: Developing countries are on the periphery of the world capitalist system and have become dependent on the center –the developed countries o Because the center sets the terms on which the system operates Obstacles to development lie in structural differences between production and trade: o Developing economies: dominated by the primary sector –production of raw materials, agricultural products, etc. o Developed economies are dominated by the industrial sector o Developing economies rely on export of primary products to pay for manufactured imports –BUT the price of manufactured imports rise faster than the price of primary exports Leads to long-term tendency towards o Declining and unfavorable terms of trade o Concentration of industrial production in the center o Dependence on imports in the periphery Results: o Flow of capital is asymmetrical: tending to flow from periphery towards the center o Outflow is a structural constraint by ensuring that the states in the periphery are Weak Open to penetration from the center With little or no scope for autonomous action 2/ Dependency theory (continued) ---Dos Santos reading Unequal power relations developed from colonial times and continue to be maintained thru NEO-COLONIALISM Solutions: end dependence and exploitation [Reformist/Gradual OR Radical Change] o 1. Radical Change: opt out of capitalist system in favor of socialism/communism De-linking o 2. Reformist –National level: ISI State as catalyst for change, nationalization of key institutions Intra-South trade, regional cooperation (like AU –African Union) o 3. Multilateral Diplomacy and solidarity: to restructure distribution of political and economic power in international system. Includes commodity power: Cartel –OPEC (controls production, supply, and price) Relative strength in UN: Group of 77, demand New Int’l Economic Order (NIEO) NEOCOLONIALISM Concept
o Kwame Nkrumah o Expresses ongoing nature of imperialism o Illustrates independence and national sovereignty as a token [not really important] o Indirect and subtle means of control o Role of national elites Nkrumah o In most cases, neocolonialism is manifested thru economic and monetary measures o New imperial powers and actors—especially US; IMF, G8, MNCs, etc. o Needs of population often ignored Forms and mechanisms of neocolonialism o Economic domination: MNCs, Trade Unequal terms of trade: a numerical measure to indicate changes in effective purchasing power of a country’s exports or in the effective cost of imports in terms of domestic resources which are required to purchase them [foreign aid and loans] o Political domination: Interference and intervention (unequal relationship) o Cultural domination: Dominance of Western culture, Media and advertising o Military domination: Arms sale, Limited wars –Proxy wars Neo-liberal globalization Movie: “Controlling Interest: the World of the MNC” Owner of Dole Fruit Co. –profit is # 100 companies control most assets in US, oil companies are biggest Top 5 banks: over 2 billion in assets Brazil –economy greatly expanded, only top % benefit, poverty reigned EXAM 1 MATERIAL
- What is the Third World? a. Definition and characteristics b. Perceptions and role of the media (Video!) c. Characteristics
- Historical Legacies a. Colonialism and Imperialism b. Survey and comparison of the regions c. Types of colonial rule and examples d. Forms of colonial power and empire i. Opium War ii. Orientalism e. Impact and consequences of colonialism
- National Liberation and Independence a. Anti-colonialism and Third World Nationalism b. Decolonization and national liberation c. Similarities and differences in paths to independence among regions and states ( critical thinking)
- Political Economy of Development a. Concept of development: definitions, measurement, etc. b. Development and modernity c. Nature and history of capitalism
