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Lawrence A. Greenfeld
and Tracy L. Snell
BJS Statisticians
Population estimates from the Census
Bureau for July 1, 1998, indicate that
women account for more than half the
population age 10 or older:
Both genders 230,861,000 100.0%
Females 119,010,000 51.
Males 111,851,000 48.
The racial and ethnic composition of
the general population age 10 or older
varies slightly when males and females
are compared. Non-Hispanic black
females outnumber non-Hispanic black
males by nearly 1.9 million, accounting
for more than a quarter of the total
difference in the number of males and
females in the general population.
Minorities compose a slightly higher
percentage of the female population
(26.2%) than of the male population
(25.9%). Nearly a third of the disparity
in the number of females versus males
in the general population is accounted
for by the larger number of minority
females.
The average age of females in the
general population is about 2½ years
older than that of males. The largest
age disparity, about 3 years, is found
among black non-Hispanic females
compared to black non-Hispanic
males. Among females, Hispanic
women have the lowest average age,
29.6 years, while white non-Hispanic
women have the highest, 39.6 years.
˘ Based on the self-reports of victims
of violence, women account for about
14% of violent offenders & an annual
average of about 2.1 million violent
female offenders.
˘ Male offending equals about 1
violent offender for every 9 males age
10 or older, a per capita rate 6 times
that of women.
˘ Three out of four violent female
offenders committed simple assault.
˘ An estimated 28% of violent female
offenders are juveniles.
˘ Three out of four victims of violent
female offenders were women.
˘ Nearly 2 out of 3 victims had a prior
relationship with the female offender.
˘ An estimated 4 in 10 women
committing violence were perceived
by the victim as being under the influ-
ence of alcohol and/or drugs at the
time of the crime.
˘ The per capita rate of murder
offending by women in 1998 was the
lowest recorded since 1976; the rate
at which women commit murder has
been declining since 1980.
˘ In 1998 there were an estimated
3.2 million arrests of women &
accounting for about 22% of all
arrests that year. The per capita rate
of arrest among juvenile females was
nearly twice the adult female rate.
˘ Since 1990 the number of female
defendants convicted of felonies in
State courts has grown at more than
2 times the rate of increase in male
defendants.
˘ In 1998 an estimated 950,
women were under the care, custody,
or control of correctional agencies &
probation or parole agencies super-
vising 85% of these offenders in the
community. The total equals a rate
of about 1 woman involved with the
criminal justice system for every 109
adult women in the U.S. population.
˘ Women under supervision by
justice system agencies were
mothers of an estimated 1.3 million
minor children.
˘ Nearly 6 in 10 women in State
prisons had experienced physical or
sexual abuse in the past; just over a
third of imprisoned women had been
abused by an intimate in the past;
and just under a quarter reported
prior abuse by a family member.
˘ About 84,000 women were
confined in prisons in 1998. In 1996
the average sentence and time
served for women were shorter than
for males with equivalent offenses.
As a percentof each category 14% 22% 16% 16%
Number 2,135,000 3,171,000 160,500 951,
Women offenders offenders arrestees defendants populations
Violent All Convicted felony Correctional
U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
Revised 10/3/2000, th
Bureau of Justice Statistics
Special Report
Highlights
December 1999, NCJ 175688
Women Offenders
Table 1
Violent victimizers
During an average year, based on the
period 1993-97, victims of violence
attributed the crimes they experienced
to an estimated 2.1 million female
violent offenders and 13.1 million male
violent offenders.
About 1 out of 7 violent offenders
described by victims was a female.
Women accounted for 1 in 50 offend-
ers committing a violent sex offense
including rape and sexual assault, 1 in
14 robbers, 1 in 9 offenders committing
aggravated assault, and more than
1 in 6 offenders described as having
committed a simple assault.
Nearly 3 in 4 violent
victimizations committed
by female offenders were
simple assaults; just over
half the violence of male
offenders is described as
simple assault.
The rate of male violent
offending translated into
about 1 violent offender for every 9
males age 10 or older in the general
population; the rate of female violent
offending was equal to about 1 violent
offender for every 56 females age 10
or older.
Per capita rates of offending among
both males and females decreased
from the peak rates recorded in 1994.
Rates of committing violent crime in
1997 were 29% lower for males and
25% lower among females.
Characteristics of violent female
offenders
More than half of female violent
offenders were described by victims
as white, and just over a third were
described as black. About 1 in 10 were
described as belonging to another race
(Asian, Pacific Islander, Native Hawai-
ian, American Indian, Aleut, or
Eskimo).
Black and white offenders accounted
for nearly equal proportions of women
committing robbery and aggravated
assault; however, simple assault
offenders were more likely to be
described as white.
Among violent female offenders, 53%
committed the offense while alone, and
40% were with others, all of whom
were female. Among male offenders,
47% were alone, and 51% were with
other males when the offense
occurred. About 8% of violent female
offenders committed their offense
together with at least one male
offender; by contrast, about 1% of male
violent offenders committed the offense
in the company of a female offender.
Total population 119,010,000 111,851,
Non-Hispanic 0.7 0.
Hispanic 0.1% 0.1%
American Indian/Alaska Native
Non-Hispanic 3.6 3.
Hispanic 0.2% 0.2%
Asian/Pacific Islander
Non-Hispanic 12.1 11.
Hispanic 0.6% 0.6%
Black
Non-Hispanic 73.8 74.
Hispanic 8.8% 9.5%
White
Females Males
Percent of U.S. population age 10 or older, 1998
Gender, race, and Hispanic origin
in the U.S. population
Simple assault 1,533,000 7,187,000 18
Aggravated assault 435,000 3,419,000 11
Robbery 157,000 2,051,000 7
Sexual assault 10,000 442,000 2
All 2,135,000 13,098,000 14%
Offense Female Male offenders
Women as a percent of violent
Average annual number of offenders reported by victims, 1993-
Violent crimes committed by females and males
Male Female male:female
Ratio of offending rates,
Offending rates: Number of offenders per 1,000 residents
Table 3
Table 2
Table 4
Number of violent offenders per 1,000 residents
Women (rate times 7)
Men
Fig. 2
Fig. 1
assault
Robbery
offenses
Percent of female offenders
White Black Other
Violent
Aggravated
Simple
assault
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
30 or older
Under 12
Age of offender
Percent of violent female offenders
women accounted for about 12% of
these offenders.
The largest out-of-pocket cost item for
victims of female violence was medical
expenses which averaged $1,127,
nearly $550 less than victims of male
violence experienced. Lost pay due to
injury to victims of female violence
averaged $311 and lost pay for court
appearances and other reasons cost
victims an average of $513 when the
offender was a female & both of these
were less than half the losses victims
experienced when the offender was a
male.
Women who murder
Since 1993 both male and female rates
of committing murder have declined.
Rates of committing murder in 1998
were the lowest since statistics were
first collected in 1976. The estimated
rate for murder offending by women in
1998 was 1.3 per 100,000 & about 1
murderer for every 77,000 women.
The male rate of murder offending in
1998 was 11.5 per 100,000, about 1
murderer for every 8,700 males.
The 1998 rate of committing murder by
women was just over 40% of the rate in
1976. Since 1980 rates for women
have been steadily declining. For male
offending, the peak rate occurred in
1991, with 20.7 murderers per 100,
males (about 1 murderer for every
4,800 males); the rate in 1998 was just
over half of what it had been in 1991.
The victim-offender relationship
differed substantially between female
and male murderers. Of the 60,
murders committed by women between
1976 and 1997 just over 60% were
against an intimate or family member;
among the 400,000 murders committed
by men over the same period, 20%
were against family members or
intimates.
An estimated 1 in 14 murders by a
female offender and 1 in 4 murders by
a male offender was committed against
a victim who was a stranger to the
offender.
Between 1976 and 1997, juveniles
accounted for just over 6% of the
murders committed by female offend-
ers, or approximately 4,000 murders.
In 1976 there were an estimated 226
juvenile female murderers compared to
an estimated 153 in 1997. The only
group of women for whom the rate of
murder offending has not continued to
decrease are those age 18-24. The
per capita rate of committing murder
for women of this age reached its
lowest point in 1995, and by 1997 had
climbed 25%.
Nearly 6 in 10 female murderers are
black. The age distribution of white
and black female murderers is quite
similar, though among older offenders
(50 or older) black females account for
less than half of female murderers.
Murderers Female Male Handgun 42% 51% Other firearm 11 16 Knife 31 18 Blunt object 4 6 All other weapons 12 9
Just over half of women committing
murder and two-thirds of males
committing murder used a firearm.
Female offenders were substantially
more likely than male murderers to
have used a knife or other sharp object
to commit the crime.
Table 7
Number, 1976-
Stranger 7.2 25.
Acquaintance 31.9 54.
Boyfriend/girlfriend 14.0 3.
Other family 6.7 6.
Child/stepchild 10.4 2.
Ex-spouse 1.5 0.
Spouse 28.3% 6.8%
Victim Female Male
Murderers
Number of murderers per 100,000 residents
Women (rate times 5)
Men
Fig. 8
Table 8
Number, 1976-
65 or older 2.2 1.
13 or younger 0.6% 0.6%
Victim White Black
Female murderers Table 9
Parents who kill
Between 1976 and 1997 parents
and stepparents murdered nearly
11,000 children. Mothers and
stepmothers committed about half
of these child murders. Sons and
stepsons accounted for 52% of
those killed by mothers and 57%
of those killed by fathers. Mothers
were responsible for a higher share
of children killed during infancy
while fathers were more likely to
have been responsible for the
murders of children age 8 or older.
Arrests
In 1998 there were an estimated 3.
million arrests of women, accounting
for about a fifth of all arrests by law
enforcement agencies. Women were
about 17% of those arrested for the
Part I violent crimes (murder, rape,
robbery, and aggravated assault) and
29% of those arrested for Part I
property crimes (burglary, larceny, and
motor-vehicle theft). An estimated
22% of all female arrests (Part I and
Part II) were of juveniles & about
700,000 juvenile female arrests in
1998. Juvenile female arrestees
accounted for a higher percentage of
women arrested for motor vehicle theft,
liquor law violations, and vandalism.
The numbers of arrests in 1998 trans-
late into about 1 arrest for every 22
female juveniles (age 10-17) and 1
arrest for every 42 adult women (age
18 or older). For Part I violent
crimes, there was 1 arrest of a female
juvenile for every 794 girls in the
general population and 1 arrest of an
adult female for every 1,099 adult
women residents. Larceny, the offense
category with the most arrests, equaled
about 1 arrest for every 105 girls
under age 18 and 1 arrest for every
337 women age 18 or older.
In 1998 there were more than a quarter
million female drug arrests, accounting
for about 18% of all arrests for drug law
violations. Drug arrest rates in 1998
were 1 for every 538 juvenile females
in the resident population and 1 for
every 426 adult women residents.
Per capita arrest rates for Part I violent
crimes among juvenile females (17 and
younger) and among young adult
females (18-24) have risen substan-
tially from the early 1980's. The
juvenile arrest rate for violent offenses
in 1995 was about 2Î times the rate
in 1985. However, juvenile rates have
declined in each year since 1995.
By contrast, young adult female rates
of arrest for violence continue to climb
with the 1997 rate about 80% above
the rate 10 years earlier and at the
highest level recorded.
Female defendants in State courts
Women accounted for about 16% of all
felons convicted in State courts in
1996. Women were 8% of convicted
violent felons, 23% of property felons,
and 17% of drug felons. Women
defendants accounted for 41% of all
felons convicted of forgery, fraud, and
embezzlement. The majority of male
and female felony defendants in the 75
largest counties in the United States
were either charged with violence or
were recidivists. An estimated 27% of
male and 42% of female felony defen-
dants in State courts in large counties
had no history of prior convictions and
had not been charged with a violent
offense.
State courts have recorded substantial
growth in the number of female defen-
dants convicted of felonies. Between
1990 and 1996, the number of con-
victed female defendants grew at 2Î
times the rate of increase among male
defendants.
For women defendants convicted in
State courts, nearly 90% of the
increase in the number of violent felons
was accounted for by aggravated
assault, perhaps reflecting increased
Note: Violent offenses, which include rape, and property offenses are the Part I offenses In the FBI Uniform Crime Reports.Total arrests includes Part I and Part II offenses.
Driving under the influence 219,514 16% 24 208
Drug offenses 272,073 18% 186 235
Motor vehicle theft 23,585 16 61 14
Larceny 453,277 35 953 297
Burglary 41,177 13 85 27
Property offenses 521,894 29% 1,109 341
Aggravated assault 99,490 20 106 80
Robbery 12,130 10 19 9
Murder 1,959 11 1 2
Violent offenses 113,877 17% 126 91
Total arrests 3,170,520 22% 4,630 2,
1998 Percent of all arrests Juvenile Adult
Female arrest rate per Arrests of females 100,000 female residents
Arrests of females, 1998
Table 10
Note: Murder includes nonnegligent manslaughter; larceny includes motor vehicle theft; and fraud include forgery and embezzlement. Details may not equal totals because of rounding.
Other felonies 11,166 13,959 17,351 18,399 65%
Possession 18,438 18,518 20,907 26,022 41
Trafficking 24,562 23,529 25,561 33,005 34
Drug felonies 43,000 42,047 46,468 59,027 37%
Fraud 21,885 24,221 24,910 33,902 55
Larceny 20,728 22,179 22,136 28,786 39
Burglary 5,593 5,830 6,603 6,847 22
Property felonies 48,206 52,230 53,649 69,536 44%
Other violent 1,085 1,440 2,256 1,356 25
Aggravated assault 5,043 6,152 6,906 7,786 54
Robbery 3,047 3,142 2,854 2,920 -
Rape/sexual assault 202 375 630 442 119
Murder 1,051 1,205 1,289 1,005 -
Violent felonies 10,428 12,313 13,936 13,509 30%
Total 112,800 120,550 131,404 160,470 42%
Percent change, 1990 1992 1994 1996 1990-
Estimated number of women convicted of felonies in State courts
Felony convictions of women in State courts, 1990-
Table 11
women convicted of violence under
supervision by probation authorities
compared to about 3,300 convicted
violent offenders in local jails, 21,
in State prisons, and fewer than 1,
in Federal prison. Similarly, among
convicted female drug traffickers, an
estimated 58,000 are on probation,
5,300 are held in local jails, 13,500 in
State prisons, and about 5,300 in
Federal prison.
The offense composition
among women in State
prison has been changing.
The proportion who had
been convicted of violent
and property crimes has
been decreasing while the
proportion of drug and
public-order offenders has
been growing.
Characteristics of women
serving a sentence
Race and Hispanic origin
While nearly two-thirds of women
under probation supervision are white,
nearly two-thirds of those confined in
local jails and State and Federal
prisons are minority & black, Hispanic
and other races. Hispanics account
for about 1 in 7 women in State prisons
but nearly 1 in 3 female prisoners in
Federal custody.
Age
Women in prison, both State and
Federal, are older than their counter-
parts in local jails or under probation
supervision. While about 1 in 5 women
on probation or in local jails are under
age 25, 1 in 8 State prisoners and
1 in 11 Federal prisoners are of this
age. Nearly a quarter of Federal prison
inmates are at least 45 years old.
Marital status
Adult women under correctional care,
custody, or control are substantially
more likely than the equivalent general
population to have never been married.
Nearly half of women in both State
prisons and local jails have never been
married.
Education
The majority of women involved with
the justice system are at least high
school graduates. An estimated 60%
of those on probation, 55% of those
in local jails, 56% of those in State
prisons, and 73% of those in Federal
prison have completed high school,
and 30% - 40% of high school gradu-
ates have attended some college or
more.
Inmates’ children
Approximately 7 in 10 women under
correctional sanction have minor
children & children under the age of
18. An estimated 72% of women on
probation, 70% of women held in local
jails, 65% of women in State prisons,
and 59% of women in Federal prisons
have young children.
Women under correctional care,
custody, or supervision with minor
children reported an average of 2.
children of this age. Those on proba-
tion reported the fewest, 2.07 young
Public-order
Drug
Property
Violent
Trends in most serious offenses
Percent of female State prison inmates
Note: Only children under age 18 are counted.
Federal prisons 9,200 5,400 11,
State prisons 75,200 49,200 117,
Jail 63,800 44,700 105,
Probation 721,400 516,200 1,067,
Total 869,600 615,500 1,300,
Minor children
Women offenders with minor children
Women offenders
Estimated number
Children of women under correctional
supervision, 1998
Fig. 9
Table 16
Some college or more 21 16 17 29
High school graduate/GED 39 39 39 44
Some high school 35 33 37 19
8th grade or less 5 % 12 % 7 % 8 %
Education
Never married 42 48 47 34
Divorced 20 20 20 10
Separated 10 13 10 21
Widowed 2 4 6 6
Married 26 % 15 % 17 % 29 %
Marital status
Median age 32 years 31 years 33 years 36 years
55 or older 1 1 2 6
24 or younger 20 % 21 % 12 % 9 %
Age
Other 1 5 4 4
Hispanic 10 15 15 32
Black 27 44 48 35
White 62 % 36 % 33 % 29 %
Race/Hispanic origin
of women Probation jails prisons prisons
Characteristics Local State Federal
Characteristics of adult women on probation, in jail, and in prison
Table 17
children per woman with children while
those in State prison reported an
average of 2.38 children under age 18.
These estimates translate into more
than 1.3 million minor children who are
the offspring of women under correc-
tional sanction; more than a quarter
million of these children have mothers
who are serving time in prison or jail.
About two-thirds of women in State
prisons and half of women in Federal
prisons who had young children had
lived with those children prior to enter-
ing prison.
Male inmates in State prisons are
estimated to have been fathers to
about 1.1 million children under age 18,
about 11 times the number of minor
children attributable to female inmates.
About 64% of women inmates with
minor children had lived with those
children prior to admission to prison;
among men, 44% had resided with
their minor children before imprison-
ment. Males in Federal prisons had
nearly 15 times as many minor children
in total as female Federal inmates;
8 in 10 of these men and just under 6
in 10 women resided with the children
prior to entering prison.
Economic circumstances
Female prisoners generally had more
difficult economic circumstances than
male inmates prior to entering prison.
About 4 in 10 women in State prison
reported that they had been employed
full-time prior to their arrest. By
contrast, nearly 6 in 10 male inmates
had been working full-time prior to
arrest. About 37% of women and 28%
of men had incomes of less than $
per month prior to arrest. While just
under 8% of male inmates had been
receiving welfare assistance prior to
arrest, nearly 30% of female inmates
reported receiving welfare assistance
at the time just before the arrest which
brought them to prison.
Health issues
Local State jails prisons Gynecological exam since admission? 22% 90% Pregnant when admitted? 6% 5% Prenatal care since admission? 3% 4% Receiving medication for emotional disorder? 17% 23%
In 1997 an estimated 2,200 women
serving time in State prisons were
HIV-positive, about 3.5% of the female
inmate population. An estimated
20,200 male inmates, about 2.2% of
the male population, was HIV-positive.
The percentage of the female inmate
population that was HIV-positive
peaked in 1993 at 4.2%.
Alcohol and drug use
About half of women offenders
confined in State prisons had been
using alcohol, drugs, or both at the time
of the offense for which they had been
incarcerated. Among these women
offenders, drug use at the time of the
offense was reported more often than
alcohol use, a different pattern from
that found among male offenders in
State prisons. On every measure of
drug use (ever used, using regularly,
using in month before the offense, and
using at time of offense), women
offenders in State prisons reported
higher usage & 40% of women inmates
compared to 32% of male inmates had
been under the influence of drugs
when the crime occurred. By contrast,
every measure of alcohol use was
higher for male inmates than for female
inmates. An estimated 25% of women
on probation, 29% of women in local
jails, 29% of women in State prisons,
and 15% of women in Federal prisons
had been consuming alcohol at the
time of the offense.
Just over half of women confined in
State prisons reported drinking alcohol
in the year before the current offense
compared to two-thirds of male offend-
ers in State prisons. Daily drinkers
accounted for about 25% of female
inmates and 29% of male inmates.
Table 18
Both 18 27 28
Sexually 7 10 11
Physically 15% 10% 18%
Ever abused
Both periods 13 16 25
After age 18 13 11 20
Before age 18 16 21 12
Ever physically or sexually abused
Probation Local jails State prisons
Women
Forty-four percent of
women under correctional
authority reported that
they were physically or
sexually assaulted at
some time during their
lives. Sixty-nine percent
of women reporting an
assault said that it had
occurred before age 18.
Table 20
History of physical or sexual abuse
Table 19
Note: In 1997 69,898,000 children under age 18 were in the resident population.
Total 2.78 0.28 2.
Federal prisons 0.17 0.01 0.
State prisons 1.72 0.15 1.
Jails 0.89% 0.12% 0.77%
Percent of all children under age 18
Total 1,941,796 194,504 1,747,
Federal prisons 121,980 7,816 114,
State prisons 1,199,277 102,448 1,096,
Jails 620,539 84,240 536,
Estimated number of children under age 18
Total Mothers Fathers
Children with an incarcerated parent
In 1997 an estimated 2.8% of all children under age 18 have at least one parent
in a local jail or a State or Federal prison. About 1 in 40 children have
an incarcerated father, and 1 in 359 children have an incarcerated mother.
prisons grew by an annual average of
8.5%; over the same years, prison
populations nationwide increased an
average 6.7% annually. In 1990 State
and Federal prisons housed 44,
female prisoners, just over half the
number held in 1998.
Among State prisoners in 1998, 44%
(33,345) were held by States in the
South. The incarceration rate in the
South was the highest of any region &
65 female prisoners per 100,
residents. The West accounted for
25% (18,845) of the total State prison
population and had a per capita rate of
imprisonment of 58 per 100,000.
Midwestern States, with about 18% of
female State prisoners (13,684), had
a rate of 42 prisoners per 100,
residents. The Northeast accounted for
12% of women held by States (9,367)
and had an incarceration rate of 31.
In 1998 the highest per capita rate of
confinement among the States was in
Oklahoma (122), and the lowest was in
Maine and Vermont (9 in each). The
District of Columbia had a rate equal to
173 per 100,000 female residents.
Trends in the number of sentenced
female prisoners per 100,000 female
residents, by race:
Year All women White Black 1990 31 19 117 1991 33 19 129 1992 35 20 136 1993 40 23 155 1994 45 26 169 1995 47 27 176 1996 51 30 185 1997 53 32 192 1998 57 34* 212*
*Based on projected estimate.
Sentences to prison
Prison admissions
In 1996 women accounted for about
9% of all State prison admissions, 10%
of those admitted from courts, and 8%
of revoked violator admissions.
For all types of offenses except
property offenses, the sentences
received by women were shorter than
those received by men; the average
sentences for property offenses were
the same. Short sentences on average
may reflect overall differences in crimi-
nal background, particularly the preva-
lence of violence in the backgrounds of
males sentenced to prison.
Women accounted for more than 10%
of those admitted to State prisons for
negligent manslaughter (13% were
women), larceny (18%), arson (12%),
fraud (31%), drug possession (14%),
and drug trafficking (11%). Women
accounted for about 1% of those admit-
ted for rape and sexual assault.
About 26% of women admitted to
prison following a court sentence had
been convicted of larceny or fraud
(including forgery and embezzlement)
& offenses accounting for about 10%
of male admissions.
Prison releases
Women accounted for just over 9% of
those discharged from State prisons in
Among those released, the median
time served for murder was 80 months
for men and 60 months for women.
As found for sentencing, the median
length of stay for women was less than
that for men for every type of offense.
This may be a reflection of the more
extensive criminal histories of men and
the higher prevalence of convictions for
violence in their backgrounds.
Table 24
Table 25
All other 8 24 12 36
Drugs 39 36 29 42
Property 36 36 28 36
Violent 17 60 31 72
Total 100% 36 mo 100% 48 mo
Median sentence
Percent of admissions
Median sentence
Percent of admissions
Women Men
New court commitments to State prison in 1996
Table 26
All other 8 10 11 12
Drugs 41 12 32 14
Property 38 11 31 15
Violent 14 20 26 28
Total 100% 12 mo 100% 16 mo
Median time served
Percent of releases
Median time served
Percent of releases
Women Men
First releases from State prison in 1996
Death sentences
At the end of 1997, 44 inmates, or
1.3% of the death row population, were
women. During the year, two women
were sentenced to death and five had
their death sentences removed. States
holding women under sentence of
death were &
Alabama - 3 Missouri - 1
Arizona - 1 Nevada - 1
California - 8 New Jersey - 1
Florida - 6 North Carolina - 3
Idaho - 1 Oklahoma - 3
Illinois - 2 Pennsylvania - 4
Mississippi - 1 Tennessee - 2
Texas - 7
Of the 44 women under sentence
of death, 30 were white and 14 were
black. One white inmate and one black
inmate were Hispanic.
For women under sentence of death,
an average of 78 months had elapsed
since sentencing, about 8 months less
than for males.
Between January 1, 1977, and Decem-
ber 31, 1997, a total of 432 persons
were executed including 1 white,
non-Hispanic female in North Carolina
in 1984. During 1998, 2 women were
executed (1 each in Texas and
Florida).
Recidivism
In 1996, women accounted for about
11% of successful discharges from
parole and 8% of unsuccessful parole
terminations. Overall, about 45% of
women for whom parole supervision
was ended in 1996 were returned to
prison or had absconded. Women
successfully discharged from parole
supervision had spent an average of
15 months in prison on their sentence
and 20 months under supervision in
the community. Unsuccessful female
parole discharges had spent an
average of 17 months in prison and 18
months under community supervision
prior to termination.
A 3-year followup of a sample repre-
senting 109,000 persons (6,
females among them) discharged from
prisons in 11 States in 1983 found that
52% of women were rearrested. An
estimated 39% of women discharged
from prisons were reconvicted within 3
years and 33% were returned to
prison. Prior arrest history was an
important predictor of post-prison
recidivism: among women with only the
one arrest for which they had been
imprisoned, 21% were rearrested
within 3 years. Among women with 2-
prior arrests, 33% were rearrested;
those with 4-6 prior arrests had a 47%
rearrest rate; among those with 7-
priors, 69% were rearrested; and,
nearly 8 out of 10 women with 11 or
more priors were rearrested.
Table 27
Number of women under sentence of death
December 31
Total
Black women
White women
Fig. 10
The prevalence of imprisonment
among women
The most recent BJS estimate of the
lifetime chance of being sent to
Federal or State prison at least once
indicates that overall about 11
women out of 1,000 will be incarcer-
ated at some time in their lives. The
estimates further show that about 5
out of 1,000 white women, 36 out of
1,000 black women, and 15 out of
1,000 Hispanic women will be
subjected to imprisonment during
their lifetime.
For males, BJS estimates indicate
that about 90 out of 1,000 males will
be incarcerated during their lives; 44
white males, 285 black males, and
160 Hispanic males for every 1,
in the general population will serve
time in a Federal or State prison.
By 1,000 women age & White Black Hispanic 20 -- 3 1 25 2 11 4 30 3 20 7 35 4 27 9 40 4 31 12 45 5 33 13 50 5 34 14 55 5 35 15 65 5 36 15 Lifetime 5 36 15
Table 28
National Prisoner Statistics
The National Prisoner Statistics (NPS)
data series produces annual and semi-
annual national and State-level data on
the numbers of prisoners in State and
Federal prison facilities (NPS-1). Since
1926 the Federal government has
published data annually on the prisoner
count in each State, the District of
Columbia, and the Federal prison
system.
Prisoners in 1998, BJS, August 1999,
NCJ 175687.
A second data collection in the NPS
series yields annual national and State-
level data on persons sentenced to
death and those executed (NPS-8).
Data collected include offender
demographic characteristics, prior
criminal histories, and criminal justice
system status at the time of the capital
offense, and time spent on death row.
Data are available on executions since
1930 and sentencing since 1973.
Capital Punishment 1997, BJS,
December 1998, NCJ 172881.
National Corrections Reporting
Program
The National Corrections Reporting
Program (NCRP) has collected data
annually since 1983 on prison admis-
sions and releases and on parole
entries and discharges in participating
jurisdictions. Demographic informa-
tion, conviction offenses, sentence
length, minimum time to be served,
credited jail time, type of admission,
type of release, and time served are
collected from individual prisoner
records.
BJS spreadsheets for selected years
accessible through
http://ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/
dtdata.htm#time
Surveys of probationers and jail
and prison inmates
BJS also conducts national surveys of
persons under probation supervision
and those confined in local jails and
State and Federal prisons. These
nationally representative surveys are
the principal source of information on
those serving time following a convic-
tion: their backgrounds, their prior
criminal histories, and the circum-
stances surrounding the offense for
which they had been incarcerated.
Both jail and prison surveys obtain
from violent offenders details about the
offender's relationship to the victim.
Substance Abuse and Treatment of
Adults on Probation, 1995, BJS, March
1998, NCJ 166611.
Profile of Jail Inmates, 1996, BJS, April
1998, NCJ 164629.
Substance Abuse and Treatment of
State and Federal Prisoners, 1997,
BJS, January 1999, NCJ 172871.
Lifetime Likelihood of Going to
State or Federal Prison
This BJS Special Report estimates
lifetime chances of going to State or
Federal prison using standard
demographic lifetable techniques and
assuming that recent incarceration
rates remain unchanged. It describes
characteristics of persons admitted to
prison for the first time, compares
lifetime and 1-day prevalence rates,
and considers changes in admission
rates since 1991. March 1997, NCJ
Data points for the graphical figures
Stranger 38 64
Acquaintance 49 27
Relative 7 3
Intimate 6% 7%
Male offenders
Female offenders
Victim-offender relationship
Figure 4, page 3
Other 12 15
Commercial area 12 13
Work 12 15
Open area 18 26
School 20 10
At/near victim's home 26% 21%
Male offenders
Female Location of violence offenders
Figure 6, page 3
Drugs only 11 6
Alcohol only 19 25
Both 8 10
Any 39 40
Neither 61% 60%
Male offenders
Female offenders
Victim’s perception of offender’s use of alcohol or drugs at the time of the violence
Figure 7, page 3
Stranger 37 39
Acquaintance 55 26
Relative 7 7
Intimate 1% 29%
Male victims
Female victims
Victim-offender relationship
Female offenders
Figure 5, page 3
30 or older 38
Under 12 2%
Percent of violent female offenders
Age of offenders
Figure 3, page 2
Simple 58 31 10
Aggravated 45 46 10
Assault
Robbery 43 43 14
Violent offenses 55% 35% 11%
Offense White Black Other
Race of female offender
Figure 1, page 2
White Black Total
Women under sentence of death
Figure 10, page 11
The number of female murderers per 100,000 females in the population was multiplied by 5 so that year-to-year differ- ences could be seen.
Female rate x 5
Female rate
Male rate
Murderers per 100,000 residents
Figure 8, page 4 The Bureau of Justice Statistics
is the statistical agency of the
U.S. Department of Justice.
Jan M. Chaiken, Ph.D., is director.
BJS Special Reports address a
specific topic from one or more
datasets that cover many topics.
Lawrence A. Greenfeld and Tracy
L. Snell wrote this report. James
A. Fox, Ph.D., the Lipman Family
Professor of Criminal Justice at
Northeastern University, contributed
data on homicides. Devon Adams,
Maureen A. Henneberg, and Steven
Smith of BJS provided review assis-
tance and comments. Tom Hester
produced the report, and Jayne
Robinson prepared it for final publi-
cation. Priscilla Middleton and
Marianne Zawitz managed the
dissemination of the report and the
production of the Internet version.
December 1999, NCJ 175688
Public-order 2.8 5.1 5.7 10.
Drug 12.3 12.0 32.8 34.
Property 36.1 41.2 28.7 26.
Violent 47.9% 40.7% 32.2% 28.2%
Percent of female State prison inmates
Figure 9, page 7
This report and others from the
Bureau of Justice Statistics are avail-
able through the Internet &
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs
The data from the statistical series
analyzed in this report are available
from the National Archive of Criminal
Justice Data, maintained by the Inter-
university Consortium for Political and
Social Research at the University of
Michigan, 1-800-999-0960. The
archive may also be accessed
through BJS Internet site.
