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AUTHOR (^) Butt, Richard; And Others TITLE (^) On Being Personal about the Collective. PUB DATE Apr 92 NOTE (^) 33p. PUB TYPE (^) Speeches/Conference Papers (150) Reports Descriptive (141)
EDRS PRICE (^) MFO1 /PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS (^) *Autobiographies; *Case Studies; Comparative
Analysis; Elementary Education; Elementary School Teachers; Faculty Development; Higher Education; Personal Narratives; *Research Methodology; Teacher Improvement IDENTIFIERS (^) Collaborative Writing; Collective Interpretation; Interpretive Research; *Personal Experiences; Story Writing; *Teacher Knowledge
ABSTRACT
Teacher knowledge and development from the teacher perspective were studied. Teachers wrote their own stories using collaborative autobiography (writing individual stories in groups). This report documents the evolution of the research methodology in discerning the personal, individual, similar, common, and collective as researchers moved from gathering single cases to collections of cases of teachers' stories. Research focused on how to discern and represent what was common or collective without excluding the
personal. Stories portrayed details of thinking and acting that teachers brought to the classroom. Researchers read the stories, identified themes, patterns, and essential structures, and noted what events, and vignettes best illustrated story elements. They recorded key words and phrases and represented collaborative interpretation using the teachers' own words and styles. Case studies and a capsule account (interpretive summary of the case study) are offered as well as a comparative analysis of clusters of stories that lets researchers identify types of commonalities relating to teachers' lives within their different experiences. The paper offers an aggregation of cases as a method for exploring commonality. It discusses how researchers can discern qualitative commonality through quantitative encoding and analysis and examines the role of the personal and contextual within qualitative validity and commonality. (SM)
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OnBeingPersonalAbouttheCollective
RichardButt RochelleYamagishi PeterChow
TheUniversityofLethbridge
Anoteonauthorship
Thispaperiswritteninpartsinthevoiceofthefirstauthorsinceitrelateseventsfromupto
tenyearsago.RochelleYamagishiandPeterChowareco-authorsinthattheywereinvolved
withmeasco-researchersinencodingandininterpretingdatafrommanyteachers'stories
duringthelasttwoyears.R.L.B.
ApaperpresentedatA.E.R.A.,SanFrancisco. April20-24.
I
OnBeingPersonalAbouttheCollective
3
andsociologyrelatedtocollectivebiography(Butt&Raymond,1989,pp.413-416)whichwe
tooknoteofinourwork.
Withlittletoguideusweproceededslowlytofigureoutourownwaytoaddressthis
challengethroughoutthelasttenyears.InpreparationforthispaperIdidconsultthe
literatureandfound,tomydelight,thatwenowhavesomeinsightsrelatedtotheissueofthe
personalandcollective. Iwastempted,then,towriteadigestedexpostfactoreconstructionof
thismethodologicalmetatheory,particularlyasitpertainedto"validity"and
"generalizability"astheintroductiontothispiece--thatiswritethepaperinadeductive
manner.ButIdidn't.ThatisnotthewayithappenedandIdon'tthinkreaderswillunderstand
thepaperbestthatwaywithabstractionupfrontandrealitybehind. Ihavewrittenthepaper,
truetoourmethod,asastory,examining,inturn,whatwedidwiththeindividualcase,
comparisonofseveralcases,examinationandinterrelationofclustersofstories,andthe
identificationandclarificationofthemeswhichranacrossalargenumberofstoriesand
lastly,aninterpretiveintegrationofsixtyteachers'stories.FollowingthisIusemyrecent
understandingoftheliteraturetotrytoarguefurtherastohowandwhyweneedtoincludethe
personal,contextualandthickdescriptioninordertoillustratecommonality,respect
contextualcomplexityanddemonstratevalidityandgeneralizationwithinandacross
teachers'stories.
courStoryjboutThePersonalAndTheCollectiveInTeachers'Stories
FromOneStorytoOneCase
Thelengthofourteachers'storiesrangesfromfortytooveronehundredpages.These
stories,inandofthemselves,portrayindaytodaydetailthewaysofthinkingandactingthat
teachersbringtotheirteaching.Theyalsoprovidestoriesfromtheirpersonaland
professionaldevelopmentwhichhelpthereadertounderstandhowtheycametobethatway.
Wehavetofacetheunfortunatefactthatthesestoriesaretoolongformostformsofresearch
communicationexceptforbook-likemanuscripts.Forthepurposesofunderstandingthe
architectureofself(Pinar,1988),withineachstory,therefore,itisnecessarytoprovidean
interpretiveaccountofsometentotwentypageswhichcapturestheessenceofateacher's
knowledgeanddevelopment.Thisinterpretiveaccountiscreatedthroughacollaborative
processamongtheautobiographerandseveralresearchers.Wereadandrereadthestory
withoutpayingmuchattentiontointerpretationuntilwecaninternalizeitsmainfeaturesand
vignettes.Independently,we,then.identifyitsmainthemesandpatternsusingaprotocol
developedbyRaymond(seeYamagishi,1991).Weattempttoidentifywhateveressential
structuresarecontainedwithinthestory--whetherimages,metaphors,principles,andthe
like.Wealsonotewhatevents,vignettes,andthepartsofthestogymightbestillustratethese
4
4
storyelements.Keywords,phrasesandtheirmeaningswithinthetextarerecorded.Wethen
representourcollaborativeinterpretationofthestoryusing,asfaraspossible,theteacher's
ownwords,phrases,andstyle.Theautobiographerhasasignificantpartintheconstruction
andvalidationofthistext.Thisaccountprovidesthereaderwithaccesstoadeep
understandingofthecoreelementsoftheteacher'snarrativewhilemaintaininganexpression
ofthestories'richpersonalgrainanddetail.
ThefirststoryweinterpretedaspartofevolvingthisprocesswasLloyd's.Itispublished
elsewhere(Butt&Raymond.1989)butitisessentialtoincludeithereforourimmediate
purposes.
Lloydisa38year-oldteacherwithtwelveyearsofteachingexperience.He currentlyteachesgradesixpupils,mostofwhomareofaverageorbelowaverageability. Hehasbeenteachinginhiscurrentschoolforthepastelevenyears.Fouryearsagohe
wasmadeadministrativeassistant.LloydisaJapaneseCanadianwhosefamilywas
internedduringthewarandresettledinSouthernAlberta.Heisthethirdyoungestina
familyoftenchildren.Heismarriedwiththreechildren.
SocialDevelopmentofStudents ThedescriptionopenswithavignettewhereinacolleagueofLloyd'sangrily requeststotalkwithhimaboutthebehaviourofhisclass.
Asshestormedaway,myinnocent-lookingchildrenstaredatmewithdisbelief. "Boy,issheevermadatyou,'volunteeredSarasympathetically.'Atme7I questioned.Tdsayshewasquiteupsetwithyoustudents,'Iadded. Iguessitwaslecturetimeagain.Mystudents'overallworkhabits, attitude,andgeneralconducthadnotbeenuptoparsincetheChristmasbreak andagentlereminderduringthefirstweekbackmusthavebeenineffective... WhenIdispensemyresponsibilitylecture,Idealwithkeyconceptssuchas
self-respect,self-discipline,maturity,pride,teamwork,commitmentand
responsibility.
Lloydprideshimselfinhavingoneoftheclassesthatisthemostresponsible, trustworthyanddisciplinedintheschool.Healsofeelspartofthereasonforthis, besideshisdisciplinaryskill,Isthathehasgoodrapportwithhisstudentsduetohis
personality.Heshowswarmththroughtalkingtothem,notatthem,throughjoking
around,throughphysicalcontact,andfeelshissmallstaturelessensthephysical
distancebetweenthem.Fit:1ringawell-disciplinedclassalsobringspressure.Attimeshe fearsthathisclassroomhasbecomeadumpinggroundforstudentswithevery conceivableweakness... academic,social,disciplinary,andemotional.Theprincipal andparentsrequestplacements.Hewonderswhetherheisasocialworkerorateacher-- whethertogointocounsellingfull-time,thereforenothavingtoplanlessonsandteach curriculum!Heworriesaboutburn-out,especiallywhensomeclassesdon'tcatchon
quicklyandrequirerepeatedreminderslikehiscurrentclass.
Inmakingsenseofhowhecametothinkandactthiswayintermsofwhathe callssocialdevelopmentintheclassroom,Lloydpositsseveralshapinginfluences.
LUAU Lloydseeshisparentsandfamilyashavingamajoreffectonhisteaching. Throughouthislife,hisparentshaverepeatedlystressedtheconceptsofrespect.
responsibility,commitment,self-discipline,teamwork,trust,andrightandwrong.They
hadtheabilitytoingrainthesevalueswithoutspankingorverbalabuse.Theyweregood rolemodelsandusedtheidenticallecturesthatLloydusesnowwithhisownchildrenand
L. )
AcademicDevelopment Iamasticklerformandatedcurriculumforthefollowingreasons:
- Ihavemadeahabitfrommyearliestteachingdaystorefertothe curriculumguideandfollowitliketheGospel.
- Iwanttoavoidcriticismfrommystudents'subsequentteachers.
- Iwantmystudentstohaveaneasytransitionfromgradetograde.
- Iwanttohavetheblackandwhitedatatojustifymyprogramsto
administrators,parents,studentsandotheroutsidegroups(safety
measure).
- Ihavemadeacommitment--howevercovert--tosuperiorsthatIwould teachthecurriculumguideandhavingawell-developedsenseofrightand wrong,Ijustdonotwanttoeliminateanyareas.
EarlierLloydhadalsowrittenthathedidn'twantauthorityfigurestocomedown onhimforfailingtocoverthecurricula,thatnothingshouldbeleftoutinasystemof progression,andthathefounditchallengingtolearnandcoverallcurriculumareas sinceitgavehimasenseofknowledgeability.
However,ImustadmitthatIdodeviatefromthecurriculumguide,inthat mypracticalknowledgeinfluenceshowmuchtimeanddetailIwillusein coveringcertainareas.Forexample,Iwillspendmuchmoretimethan
recommendedwithnumeration.operationandproblem-solvingconceptsthan
theareasofmeasurementandgeometry.Inessence,Iammakingadecisionfor
thestudents,sayingthattheformerismuchmoreimportantandusefulthanthe
latter.
Lloydhadaplethoraoflanguageartsmaterialswhichhehasusedthroughoutthe lastfiveyears.Hehadgraduallygrownawayfromusingtheteacher'sguidesoclosely, tendingtopickandchooseonthebasisofrelevanceandsuitability.
Therecommendedmathtextbooklackssufficientpracticeexamplesand alsoseemstomaketoomanypresuppositionsastopreviousexperienceand thereforecreatesalackofsequenceorasenseofprogression.... However,wheneverIamteachingasubjectforthefirsttime,Ifollowa prescribedtext.providingmewithavehicletolearnthesubjectmatter.Imayor may _itleavethetext,dependingonitsvalueandwhetherornotIamabletofind anddevelopmyownmaterials.... Asinmostofmysubjects,IusethetextasonlyagilirlPandaddalotof supplementaryactivitiesofmyown.Generallyspeaking,Iplacestockinmyown materialsmoresothanaprescribedtext.
Lloyduseshisownandothertestsquitefrequently,includingpre-andpost-tests since:growthcanbemeasuredfromstarttofinish;problemsareascanbediagnosed;any conceptworthteachingisworthtesting;childrenneedtowritetestssoastodowellin externalassessment;alsoLloyddoesnotwanthisteachingtobelabelledbyunfavourable testscores. Lloyd'sdescriptionofhisapproachtovarioussubjectsilluminateshisteaching
stylewhichischaracterizedbystructure,organization,flexibility,sequentialorderand
progression.Lloydfindsheprefersteachinginablockapproachratherthanaspiral
method,withsequentialorderandprogressionstartingfromthebasicsthenproceeding inincreasinglevelsofdifficultytomorecomplexconcepts.
7
lr_latmeasiths,..Pazt
Lloydlocateshisgeneralattitudetowardsmandatedcurriculuminhisparents'
emphasisonrightandwrong(youarerequiredbylawtoteachthecurriculum). commitment(completethecurriculumasprescribed),andsurvival(ifyouteachwhatyou aresupposedtoyoudon'tgetintotrouble),andinhisstrivingtogainacceptanceand respectability.Thethemeofupwardmobilitycanbepickedupagain,here,fromthe previoussection.Thenecessarystrivingforsuccessasanumberofaminoritygroup combinedwiththestrongworkethicoftheJapaneseculturecontributedtowhatLloyd
callshisgreatobsession.Thisrelatesnotonlytohisattitudetocurriculumbutthetotal
teachingjob,includingthoroughpreparationandverydetailedplans. Lloydarrivedathisfirstfull-timejobwith'aninnerdriveandgustotobecomethe bestdamnteacherintheworld!'Hewasobsessedwithbeingthebestusingallhisenergy andtime,evenattheexpenseofhisfamilyandfriends. Everythingrevolvedaroundthe realmofeducation.Itbecamemorethanjustapreoccupation.
Eachany,forthefirstsevenyearsofmyteachingcareerwaslikearitual. I
wouldarriveatschoolanhourbeforethefirstbellandleaveaboutanhourand
onehalfattheclose.Thismadeitasolid7.1/2hoursofproductiveand
instructionaltimeatschool,notincludingnoonhourextra-curricular
supervisionwhichoccurredatdifferentintervalsduringtheyear.Aftermy
eveningmealathome,1wouldthensettledowninmydenandflythroughyet
anotherfiveorsixhoursofmarking,creatingworksheetsanddrawingupnew
andinnovativelessonplans.IalsostudiedtheAlbertaProgramofStudiesand
theAlbertaCurriculumGuidelikeamonkwouldstudyhisBible.Iwasready.
Eventhoughhefeltemotionallyandphysicallydrainedateachday'send,the
manyinstantrewardsfromthestudentsplusrequestsfromparentstohavetheir
childreninhisclass,madeitrewardingandprovidedmotivationforLloydtopursue 'beingthebest.' Lloyd'semphasisonlanguageskillscanberelatedtohisexperienceasachildin
schoolforwhomEnglishwasasecondlanguage. Lloydflounderedforthefirstfewyears
ofschoolingduetolanguagedifficultiesandlackofapersontodirecthimatschool.In
facthecanhardlyrecallanyteachingsduringthatfirstfewyears.Hewentthrougha periodwherehewasembarrassedwhenhisparentscametoschoolorwhen,withhis parents,heaccidentallyencounteredfriends,andalso,hedidn'tbringfriendshome,due
tohisparents'inabilitytospeakEnglishfluently.Theteachingoflanguageskillsinhis
classisinfluencedbyhisparents'lackofEnglishandLloydlearningitasasecond language;itsimportanceisdeeplyingrained. Lloyd'sbeliefsandpracticesregardingtheprovisionofacarefullyandlogically sequencedsetofconceptswithclearstructureandorganization,andtheuseofrote memorytypesofactivityonoccasion,relatetohisownfirstfouryearsofschool,aswell
astoaparticularteacherwhomhecallshis'whitemother.'Thesehistoricalevents,as
wellashispersonalinvolvementinaprojectonObjectiveBasedEducationin Mathematics,contributedtoevolvingsuchbeliefsthatsomecontentmusthavepriority-- thebasicsmustbetaughtandmasteredfirst,andskillsmustbepresentedaccordingto difficultylevel.
Understandably,withLloyd'slanguageproblem,hisfirstyearsofschoolwere verydifficult.Heremembershavingtostruggleandagonizeoversimpleconcepts himself.ButthischangedsignificantlyinthefifthgradewithMrs.Hunt.
Mystrugglesasastudentwerenearlyatanendafterthefifthgrade,thanks toakind,young,energeticladywhobroughteverythingalltogetherformeand mademeintoaconscientiousstudent.Mrs.Hunttaughtinaverystructured manner,wassensitivetoourneedsasstudents,andalwayshadinteresting
lessons,howeverbasic.Shehadmanymotivatingtechniquesandwasprobably
thesinglemostimpor+antfactorinmyappreciationforhandwriting,reading, neatnessandorder.Tothisclay,1attempttoinfluencemystudentstodolikewise.
acceptablesocialvaluesandlearningthebasicsthroughastructuredandsequential approach,nntheirown,maleLloyd'spedagogyseemdry.boringandtraditional.This, however.isnotthecase.Thethirdthemecanbecalledthehumansideofhispersonal knowledge,whichappearstoderivebothfromtheimageoffamilyandLloyd's backgroundaswellasbeingacceptablewaysofteachingaccordingtothemoderntheories oflearningimplicitinhiscurriculumguidelines,andthenatureofchildren.Lloydand hisclass,togetherasateaminanactiveway,providetheexperiencenecessaryforskill
development.Throughthisapproachthereareopportunitiesforinteractionand
concreteexperiences.Heemphasizesestablishingwarmandfriendlyrelationshipswith childrenasindividualsandprovidesopportunitiesforexpressionofselfandemotion throughvariousmeans.Lloyd,throughhispastsuffering,isabletoidentifyand empathizeinaveryhumanwaywithhisstudents.Intheend,thishumansideistie predominantflavourofhispedagogythattheyexperience.Theyarepartofanurturing familywhichhasthenecessarystructureanddirection. Lloyd'searlylife(persons,experiences,family)arethemajorsourcesofLloyd's thoughtsandactions.Laterprofessionalinfluencesandexperiencesservemainlyto elaborateorrefinehispersonalknowledgefromtheearlyyearsintohisformof professionalknowledge.Hisexperiencewithsocio-economicallydeprivedchildren,and hisupwardmobilitywithinteaching(Mrs.S--withdrawal,administrativeexperience) andtheObjectiveBasedEducationprojectservedtoreinforcetheinterestinthebasic fundamentals,structure,sequenceandorganization.Othersourcesofprofessional developmenthaveservedmoreimmediateinstrumental,technicalandacceptanceneeds. Lloyd'sknowledgewasevolvedinaprofessionalsenseveryearlyinhiscareer throughhishardworkatbecomingacombinationofwhatexternalsourcesandinternal culturesandfamilialvaluesmightsay'thebestpossibleteacher'wouldbe.Followingthis earlydevelopmentofteachingcompetence,Lloydclaimshehaschangedverylittle. Ifhe haschangedhehasdonesoinresponsetomandatedpolicies,changesinroles,orthrough
technicalelaborationofexistingskillssuchasdetermining,structuringandsequencing
curriculumcontent,anddesigningeffectiveteststhroughtheObjectiveBasedEducation project.ExperiencessuchastheseallowLloydtobecomemoreexplicitlywhathealready is. Following,then,therelativelyrapidinitialformationofhispracticalknowledge whichcombinesthepersonalwiththemandatedthroughpracticalexperience,Lloyd's
professionaldevelopmentmainlyinvolvesincrementalelaborationoforiginalpatterns.
Inasensethisprocessattemptstoidentifyandshowwhatisgenerativeacrossateacher's
storywhilemaintainingtheverypersonalgrainanddetailofthestoryinillustratingthese
elements.
Wefeelthatthisinterpretivetextormetanarrativerepresentsacasestudyofaleacher's
story.Whereasthecasestudy,ascomparedtothestory pelf,mightprovideaoptimumwayof
understandingthoseessencesofthestory,thenextstepinourtreatmentofqualitativedata
mightrepresentadiminutioninthisformofunderstanding.
Ihr,..CdukultArgunrait
Whenwritingaboutteachers'stories,orwhendoingcomparativeanalysis,onceagain.
formostresearchcommunications,thereisnotenoughspacetoincludeevenour"shorter'
interpretiveaccounts.Wehavefounditnecessary,therefore,towritecapsuleaccountsof
teachers'storieswhichareseveralpageslong.Theseareusedforsummary,illustrative,and
comparativepurposesaswellaseventuallyformingpartof"aggregates"usedtoillustrate
commonalitieswhichrunacrossteachers'stories.Theseaccountsarelargelytheinterpretive
summariesofthecasestudies.Weusethewordcapsuleinordertosuggestthatweattemptto
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Include,asbefore,alloftheimportantessencesofthestorywithsomeimportantpersonal
illustrationsofthoseelements.Again,wetrytousethekeywordsandmeaningsofthe
storytellerintheseaccounts.
Thecapsuleaccount,wefeel,doesrepresentareductionofthepersonal.Whileitcan
containthegenerativeessenceoftheteacher'sstorywithoutreductionitdoesreducethe
personalgrainanddetailusedtoillustrateorembodytheseessences.Inthatsenseitisan
abstractionandtherebyalimitation,althoughitdoesn'texhibitthecontextuallonelinessofa
scientificconceptsuchas"gravitation,"ortraditionalsocialscienceconceptssuchas
"alienation."Thereisstillsomelifetextwithinthecapsuleaccountwithwhichtosituate
understandings.
Inorderforthereadertogetasenseofwhatthesecapsuleaccountsarelikepleasereferto
theinterpretivesummaryattheendofLloyd'sstory.Aswellalatersection,whichexamines
ouruseofclusteranalysisofseveralstories,usescapsulese-runts.
TheCaseStudyofOneandCommonality
BarbaraTuchman(1979)makesthecaseforoneperson'sstoryasbeingtheprismthrough
whichwecanseeandunderstandmanyothers'lives.WhenweinterpretedLloyd'sstorywefelt
thatwithinitwouldbethingssimilarandincommoninvariouswayswithotherteachers.As
teachersourselveswecouldseepotentialempathiesandharmonieswithourexperiencesas
wellascontrasts.Otherreaderswouldbeabletodothesame.
Forusthesenseofcommonalitythatemergelfromthesethoughtswerenotmonolithic
orhomogeneousbutthatsometeacherswouldfindsomeaspectswhichweresimilarperhaps
similarenoughtobecalledcommon.Otherteacherswouldfindotherelementsofthestory
whichwereharmonic,ThisbroughttoIIndseveralimagesofthepotentialrelationshipsand
distinctionsamongteachers'stories.Thewords"ecological"and"web"cametomind(Iwasa
scientist)andofclustersofteacherswho,becauseofcontextandpersonalhistory,mightsee
theirstoriesasrelated.Thesedistinctclustersmightcontrastwithothers.SoIsawacomplex
webwhichmightrelatetooneparticularissueorsimilarissues.Therecouldbemanywebsfor
manyissues.Ifweoverlapallofthesewebs,Iwondered,wouldtherebesomecommonalities
whichwererelatedinsomehuman,social,orprofessionalwayamongmanyteachers'stories?
Onewayinwhichwechosetoinvestigatethesequestionswastoconductacomparative
analysisofaclusterofteachers'stories.AtthispointweinterpretedGlendaandRay'sstories
andaddedtheirexperiencestothemix.
CS2MDDIAILYC111121X5L/ACeligglItS2M2riti Ourconcernfortheintegrityofindividualteachers'storiesandourrespectforthe
illucidatoryfunctionofpersonalaccountsoflivedrealityledustointerpretGlendaandRay's
storiesusingthesamecomprehensiveinterpretiveprocessweusedwithLloyd. Secondly,we
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Herclassroomissmall,cozy,withahexagonaltableasthecenterofactivity. Thereisaplethoraofresourcestosupportavarietyofactivitiesdependingonthetheme,
toenabledifferentsortsofself-expressivecommunicationtooccur.Glendaregardsthe
learningofcommunicationskillsasdevelopmentalandself-correcting.Shedoesnot
havedetailedplans,justageneralideaofwhereeachthememightgo--untilFriday.She doesn'tusebehavioralobjectives,grammardrills,phonicsorworksheets. Glendaclaimsthatherpupilshavetaughtherwhathercurriculumandpedagogy
shouldbe.Inthatsense,shelivesthenotionofteacheraslearner,notonlyinher
personalbutalsoinherpedagogicallife. Therelationshipintheclassroomisthereby horizontal;everyoneparticipatesindecidingwheretogoandwhattodonext--important
ingredientsinreducingalienationandincreasingself-determination.Glendahastensto
add,however,thatthishasn'tbeeneasy. Shestillhasdifficultyleavingbehind'the
teacherasdispenserofwisdomandknowledge'totrustinherstudents. Herfather,togetherwiththeromanticfascinationwithotherlands,were
importantinfluencesonGlenda'sinterestinmulticulturalism.TedAoki,asherteacher
andmentor,wasanimportantcatalystinmovingGlendafromanother-directed
frameworkofmulticulturalismtoapersonal,authenticviewofminoritypersonsand
herself.Theseincidentsandpersons,thoughsignificant,onlypresagethemajorsource
ofGlenda'sautobiographicpraxis--herself.Thekey,forGlenda,andinherview,forher
pupils,isself-directedness.Thisinvolvedputtingsignificantothersinafacilitative
relationshiptoselfesopposedtoasourceofself.Themajorsources,ofGlenda's knowledgearethusrootedinpersonalexperiencesthatgaverisetoherself-directedness.
Theseoccurredatthenadir,duringherperceivedanomieinlife.Followingthe'stagnant
period'ofbeingasuburbanwife,havingchildren,teachingwhatshedidn'twanttoteach (homeeconomics),shewasalienatedfurtherbybeingimmersedinaforeigncultureof
Pakistan,andtheartificialdiplomaticlife.Conflictingsetsofrules,noneofthemhers,
governedherlife,leavingherfeelingpowerlessandunauthentic.Shevividlyrecallsa
turningpoint:anhystericaltantrumwhen,inPakistan.shecouldnotbeissueda
hall tablelampbecauseofherhusband's'junior'statusinthediplomaticcorps.Thehalltable
lampbecameasymbolwhichencapsulatedthedepthsofother-directednessand,atthe
sametime,thedecisiontoliberateherselfandtobegintounderstandotherpeople
(minorities)intheirownterms.Herpersonaldevelopmentintertwinedwiththatof
othersthroughherexplorationsofthepeopleandcultureofPakistan,aswellasthrough
herexplorations,whileteachingEnglishatanInternationalSchool,ofthe
rolesof
womenindifferentcultures. Shereturnedthetextsofothersinaliteraland
metaphoricalsensetothestoreroomandproceeded,withherstudents,tocreatetextsof herownandtheirown. TheforegoingdiscussionofthenatureandsourcesofGlenda'steacher'sknowledge
hasalsoillustrated,inageneralsense,itsevolution.Thewatershedexperienceswhich
enabledGlendatobecomeself-initiatedandself-determinedconstitutea'revolution'in herdispositionandactivities.Thisprovidedtheenergy,overanexhaustingbut satisfyingfour-yearperiod,forthedevelopmentofacurriculumandpedagogyin
interculturaleducation.Sheacknowledgedherinadequacy,lackofcompetenceand
overtheorizing,andundertookaprocessofpracticalself-educationandprofessional
developmentinthreeterrainsofherprofessionallife.Shedidthisthroughobservation
ofotherteachers,questioning,experience,reflectiononexperience,andthecareful
selectionofcourses,workshops,andconferencesthatmetherneeds--providingherself
withacoherentcurriculumforprofessionaldevelopment(Butt&Raymond,1989).
AtthecoreofRayspreferredwayofteachingistheimageofhaven.Theconcernfor
contentratherthanindividualstudentneedstrot'aleshim.Hewouldrather
createaclassroom
climatewhichattendstostudents'personalneedsfirst;thentheywouldbebetterableto
attend
totheacademicinterestsofthecurriculum.especiallyifitistaughtthroughapupil-centred
andexperientialapproachtoteaching.
4rl
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Rayillustrateshisnotionofhaventhroughthestoryofayoungboywhowasnotdoing
wellinschool.Uponinvestigationhediscoveredthathisfatherwasanalcoholicand
frequentlyviolent.Hisexperiencewiththeseandmanyothersimilarsituationsledhimtothe
conclusionsthatformanychildrenacademicachievementwasnotahighpriorityandthat
schoolwasviewedbysomechildrenasanescapefromthehorrorsoftheirworld.Hedecided
thathisclassroomwouldbeviewedasahavenandthatthestudentswouldbesympathetically
andcaringlyheard.
Rayrevealsthedeeppersonallinkbetweenhisimageofhavenwhenwritingabouthis
past.HisfatherwasanalcoholicandwasintermittentlypresentuntilheleftwhenRaywas
six.Hemotherstruggledtoraisehimandhisbrotherwhileteachingelementaryschool.They
frequentlymovedfromtowntotown.Whenhismothertaughthimshewasverystrict.His
elderbrotherwasalsohardonhim.Hisexperienceofjuniorandseniorhighschoolwas
characterizedagainasmuchbyhumiliationandembarrassment.Throughtheseexperiences.
hedevelopedastrongsenseofcompassionforothers.Hispersonalexperienceofhomeand
schoolenableshimtoidentifywithhisstudentsintermsoftheirneedforsecurityanda
haven.
Earlyinhiscareer,hewasabletoexpresshisimageofhavenwithinthecontextsofbeing
astudentcounsellor,teachingphysicaleducation,extra-curricularactivities.andteaching
socialstudiesinaneraoflittlecentralizedprescriptionofcurriculaandnoexternalexams.
Followingasabbaticalyear,however,hewasassignedtoteachmostlycompulsorysocial
studiessubjectswithinrecentralizedandprescribedcurriculasomegradesofwhichwere
externallyexamined.
RayteachesacompulsorysocialstudiescoursetotwoGrade9classes.Students rangefromregulartoverylowabilitywithgradelevelreadingequivalentsrangingfrom 3to12.HeteachestwoGrade9optionalsubjects;oneingeographyandtheotherin Canadianhistory.Heisfamiliarwithmanyofthestudentsintheseclassessincethey aredrawnfromhiscompulsoryclasses.AlltheGrade9classes,bothcompulsoryand optional,arecharacterizedbyawidediversityofpupilabilityandpupildispositions. Itispossible,fromRay'sdescriptionofhisclasses,toidentifysomecommon factorswhich,tovaryingdegrees,shapehisandmanyotherteachers'curriculumand pedagogy.Whetherthereismandatedcurriculumornotisapowerfulinfluenceonthe classroom'scurriculum-in-useandrelatedpedagogy.Thespecificnatureofthesubject matter,whetherprescribedorteacherdetermined,alsoinfluencespedagogy.Withregard tofactorsrelatedtostudents,majorinfluencesincludeabilitylevel,diversityofability levels,degreeofintrinsicandextrinsicmotivations,andself-controlofstudents.As well,theuniquenatureofjuniorhighschoolstudents,intermsoftheirearlyadolescent
dispositions,isanimportantfactor.Considerationofstudents'interestsandlived-
realitiesalsocontributestoadeterminationofwhatmightberelevant,whilethedegree ofstudentchoicewithrespecttocourseselectionalsointerrelateswiththesefactors. Theaboveinfluencesaremediated,ofcourse,bytheteacherasperson.The
teacheristhefinalarbitratorindeterminingwhatfinallyemergesfromthesemultiple
influencesinvarioussituationsandwithvariousactors.Ray'sidealimageofhaven,its
translationintoelaboratingcurriculumtotakeaccountofstudentlivesandpersonal
15 buttheirresponsesaredifferentperhapsbecauseofdispositionsandsituationfactors. Lloydwithdrawsandbecomesa'closetteacher':Glendacontinuestoworkinacollegial way.Glenda'sjobrequireshertocollaborate;Lloyd'sgrade-levelmeetingsdidprovides someopportunitytocollaborate--whichwasthwarted.Lloyd'sdisposition,however,the threeS's,upwardmobility,andacceptance,wouldmorelikelyleadtowithdrawal. ThenatureofLloyd'sandGlenda'sknowledge,thoughsimilarinsomerespects. aredifferentastomeans,whichilluminatestheuniquenessproducedbyinteractionsof person,task,situation,andcontext.Lloyd'sthreeS'sandupwardmobilitycontrastwith Glenda'sself-determinationandreal-idealcontinua.Thereis,however,onestrong commonfactorbetweenLloydandGlenda.Bothcanpersonallyidentifywiththe situationsoftheirstudents.Thisprovidesabridgeandbondbetweenteacherand students,amutualismthatcanmaximizecongruenceofteacherandpupilintentions (Butt,1978)and,thereby,learning. Notallteachers,however,arefortunateenoughtoworkinacontextthatpermitsa highdegreeofcongruencebetweenpreferredimagesofteachingandpupilneeds.Ray (Butt,Raymond&Ray,1988)hasanimageofhispreferredclassroomasahaven,where children'sneedsandinterestsareaddressedfirst,sothattheycanfacetheacademic concernsofthemandatedcurriculum.Hewasabletoprojectthisimagewhileteaching physicaleducation,doingstudentcounselling,anddevelopinganindividualized curriculuminsocialstudieswhenfreefromthemandatedcurriculumandexternal testing.Later,however,hisworkassignmentchangedtoincludeonlysocialstudies,
history,andgeographyatthejuniorhighschoollevel.Then,arecentralizationof
curriculumandthereturnofexternaltestingforcedhimtoabandonhisindividualized curriculum,andtocoverthemandatedcurriculumusingtraditionalpedagogy,soastobe preparedforexternaltests.Thispedagogy.alientohim,wasalsoalientothepupils,who nopresentedmanymoredisciplineproblems.Ray'simageofhavenandhispreferred pupil-centeredpedagogyarenotproblematic,exceptintwocontexts--anoptionalclassin geographywhichallowshimtousehisowncurriculumand,paradoxically,acompulsory geographycourse,whichispursuedwithinterestbyhigh-abilitystudents.These
interactionshighlighttheimportanceofperson-contextmatchesandmismatchesin
teaching,aswellasthepotentialeffectonteachers'creativityofprescribedcurriculaand
externaltesting.
InfluencesofGlenda's,Lloyd'sandRay'steachers'knowledgeincludetheir
experiencesaschildrenparents,teachers,culturalbackgrounds,personaland
professionalexperiences,andpeers.Thisspectrumofpossibleinfluencesisrelatively commonacrossteachers'autobiographies,despiteuniquepatternsandemphases.Some teachershavecurrentorpastmentorswhoremainwiththeminspirit;somehaving imageswhichguidetheirthoughtsandactions.ThoughGlenda'sdevelopmentismore
personalandlaterthanLloyd'searlyandfamilialpattern,bothclusteraround
significantlifeexperiences,traumas,andtransformations.Thisatteststothelink
betweenlifehistoryandprofessionalthoughtandaction(Butt&Raymond,1989).
Fromthisincompletecomparativeanalysisincludedherewecanidentifyseveral
differenttypesof"commonalities"whichrelatetothesethreeteachers'liveswithintheir
distinctlydifferentpersonalexperiences,workingcontexts,teachers'knowledgeandimages.
Firstly,thereappearstobeasetofsourcesandinfluenceswhichmayprovideaninterpretive
frameworkforexaminingandunderstandingteachers'knowledgeanddevelopment.
Secondly,despitevastdifferencesinteachingandcontext,acommongenericprocessappears
tolieatthecoreofteaching,teacherdevelopment,andtheteachers'experienceofworking
reality.Thisprocessistherelationshipbetweenpersonandcontext;particularlythedegreeto
whichperson-contextinteractionsaresynergistic(orcongruent),dialectic,(thatthereisa
healthydialogueandtensionbetweenpersonandcontext),orproblematic,(wherebythe
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teacherexperiencesseveredifficultyinexpressingcertainaspectsoftheirpreferredimageof
teaching).Thirdly,teacherscarrywiththemsignificantinfluencesfromtheirpersonal
historiesintotheirteaching.Indeed,teachers'imagesorcentralmetaphorsforteaching
appeartooriginatefromtheirchildhoods.
Itisthislatterpotentialcommonalitywewishtoexaminefurtherinthenextsection.
AggregationofCasesasaMethodforExploringCommonality
Althoughwebelievewhatmightbecommonorsimilaracrossteachers'livescanreside
inoneteacher'sstory,itdoesnotbecomethatvisil2leuntilweengage,aswejustdid,in
comparativeanalysisofaclusterofstories.Thecommonalitiesjustidentified,duetothe
limitednumberofcasesrevealonlypotentialcommonalities.Inordertoclarifywhetheror
notcommonalitiesholdup,itisnecessarytoexaminemultiplecases,and,throughaprocessof
aggregationmapouttheirnatureandextent.Thecommonalitywewishtoinvestigatehereis
therelationbetweenteachingdispositionsandearlychildhoodpersonalhistory.Inaddition
tothethreecasesexploredsofarwehavedevelopedcasesfromeightmoreteachersstoriesin
thesameintensivewayasbefore.Allofthemshowedstrongrelationshipsbetweentelling
childhoodexperiencesandteachingdispositions.Increatingcasesfromstorieswewrotecase
summarieswhichweresomewhatshorterthanbeforebutlongerthancasecapsules.Wedid
thisinordertoeconomizeonwritingspacewhilestilltryingtoincludeasignificantpersonal
storyline.Weincludehereonlytwocasesummariestobothillustratethisstyleofwritingand
twopersonalexamplesoftherelationshipbetweenchildhoodexperienceandteaching
dispositions.
InherearlyyearsPeggyoftenstruggledwiththepuzzleofherlife.Shewas often "confused,""alonebutnotlonely,"felta"senseofisolation,"andoftenstruggledtobecome theindependentpersonshewantedtobe.Peggyhadstrongsurvivalskillsasshe struggledforcontrolandidentity.Atbirthshewasadoptedbyacoupleintheirforties, "thiswasoftenasorespotwithme,"theyhadtwosons6and7yearsolderthanPeggy. Theolderbrotherswerenotinterestedinplayingwithher,andshewasoftenleftonher own.Becauseofherfather'sagetheyoftenreceivedthecomment,"whatacutelittle granddaughteryouhave."Shecanrecallbeingveryupsetbythisremarkandcorrecting themistake.Hermothersufferedsevereemotionalproblemsandwouldrotatebetween periodsofdepressionandwithdrawnbehaviorandperiodsofoutgoingacceptanceof Peggy."ForaslongasIcanremember,mymothersufferedfromaemotionaldisorder; thisleftmeinaawkwardpositionasayoungster.somewherebeinglovedbeyondall expectationsandbeingrejectedfornoapparentreason.Thisconjuresupaconfusing imageonmychildhood."Theylivedinanewdevelopme,A.andwerethefirsthouseinthe area,aswe!!asbeingphysicallyisolated,Peggyfeltemotionallyisolated;amotherwith inconsistentmoods,afatherwhowasworkingagreatdealofthetime,andbrothers severalolderwho"didnotwanttoplaywiththelittletwirp."Peggysumsup;thefamily bysaying"Ontheoutsideweappearedtobethe'typical'Canadianfamily...butbeyond appearance,wewereanythingbutnormal...nooneknewhowIgrewup.Noonereally understood."Thispuzzlingfatefulconfusingyouth"hadadramaticimpactonmy personalandprofessionallife."Thereistheimagecreatedbytheseearlyyearsthatseta confusingscenefocusingonvictimizationversessurvival.Thecontrastinthewaytheir
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shareandopenup.""IenjoythesatisfactionIfeelwhenhelpingadolescencedealwith thisparticularlydifficultystageoftheirlife."Peggyteachesinajuniorhighschool whichinherownlifeistheonetimeinherschoollifethatherownlifebecame confusing,gradesfellandself-esteemdropped.Teachingatjuniorhigh,"Itistheschool's responsibilitytoassistyoungpeopletoseethemselvesandothersasuniqueand importantindividuals."Peggyfindsita"challengeforstudentstodevelopandusetheir decisionmakingskillsinordertomakethebestpossiblechoiceforthemselvesintheir currentsituations."ThisideareinforceshowPeggywasabletoshedthevictimroleand survivetheunpredictableearlyyearstobecomeindependent. TeachinghealthisanaturalextensionofPeggy'sdesiretohelpstudentswiththeir personaldevelopment.Peggydescribes,'Themethodsinmymadnes.5tiescloselytomy desireforinvolvementinhumanrelationsanddealingwiththefeelings(aheadofmy desiretodealwithcontent). Ihavemaintainedforsometimethattheamountoffactual knowledgeyoupossessdoesnotmattertwohoots,ifyourpersonallifeisadisasterthen whatistheuseofbeingawarehouseofknowledge.Mystudentsaretaughttolove themselvesandthenmakeroomforothers.Thenandonlythenwilltheirheadspacebe suitedtomeaningfullearning."WhenteachingPeggyfeelstheclassroommust,"createa safe,open,nonjudgmentalenvironmentinwhichstudentsfeelcomfortable." AsachildPeggyreceivedpositivesupportfromsomeadults.Herfatherfrequently tookhertooworkandshebecamecomfortablehavingcoffeewiththepeopletothepoint where,"itbecamedifficulttotalkwithherimmaturefriends."Teachersalsoprovided herwithadultstoadmire.ThesepositiveexperienceshaveprovidedPeggywiththebelief
thatteachercanhaveasignificantimpactonherstudents,andreelsthehealth
curriculumhelpspeopledealwith"likingthemselvesasaperson."'Tomemath,science, socialstudies.andlanguageartswillhavelittleornomeaninginthelifeofayoung personwhodoesn'tyetfeelcomfortablewithwhotheyare.Thusitismydesiretoteach kidstolikethemselves." "Jwasborntoteachhealth."Theprocessorientationofthecurriculumisher naturalteachingstyle,"Idon'tusuallymakeaconsciousefforttoincludelearninginan experimentalmode.Itjusthappenswithoutmeplanningit."Intheprocessofteaching,"I havestudentsmakesenseofthematerialbasedontheirownlifesituations."To facilitatethisthecontentiscoveredinathree"I"process: 1.)Introductionofcontent.2.) Interactiontomakesenseofthetopic,3.)Internalizationtomakepersonalsense reflectionandabsorption.Peggy'sownlifereflectsthatstudentsmusthavetheir emotionalneedsmettodowellacademically.Peggyutilizesavarietyofteaching methods,roleplaying,observations,interviews,studentpresentations,andshealsouses
herownpersonalstories.
"PerhapsmygreatestsourceofpleasureinteachingcomeswhenIamableto includesomepersonalexamplesfrommyownlifetohelpstudentsgraspatopic. Ihave becomeaccustomedtowalkingafinelineindecidinghowmuchtodisclose."Herearly lifehasprovidedtheframeworkforhersuccessasahealthteacher"Professionallymy
lifeat hasmademeempathetictostudents. Irealizethatour"ideal"home
waslessadequateinprovidingsecurityandsupporttomeasachild. Iguessthatthere mustbemanystudentscomingtomyclassinworseshapethanIwasemotionally.
PerhapsIcansumuptheimpactof onmyprofessionallifebysaying,
"I'vebeenthere."
Kentisa39year-oldteacherwhowasbornandraisedforthemostpartinCalgary. Helivedanisolatedchildhoodinthathisfatherwasrarelyhomeandhismotherwas preoccupiedwiththemanyyoungerchildreninthefamily.Kentspentmuchofhistime endenergyincompetitivesports.excellinginseveral,andbasinghiseducational decisionsonsportsratherthanhisoccupationalfuture.HetaughtP.E.andcoached
athleticteamsintwohighschoolsinruralcommunities,havingentirelydifferent
experiencesasaresultoftheattitudeandsupportoftheadministrators. Kent'spedagogyseemstobecharacterizedbythreemajorthemes: Organization/Control,CommitmenttoP.d..andLoveforStudents.
Kentprideshimselfonhisorganizationalabilitiesthatrenderhim"themost
competentpersononstaff"inhisarea.Notonlydoeshefollowthecurriculum"exactly,"
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withonlyoneexception,buthislessonsandunitsarewelldone.Heisnotafraidof"flash visitsatanytimefromanyone."Hestressesmanagingandmaximizingtime,maximum productivity,andpreparation.Atthebeginningoftheyear,hesetstheclassupso"it practicallyrunsitself."However,hispositionofcontrolisunequivocal--"Iamtheboss." Hesetsthetoneforthesemester,makingabsolutelyclearstatementsregardinghislimits andexpectationsintheclass.Henevermakesaruleorthreatthathedidnot"backup everytimeinaconsistentfashion."Hedeveloped,throughtrialanderror,asatisfactory wayofdealingwithcrisisdisciplinesituations.Heenjoysthefactthathewas"virtually isolatedandonhisown"--totallyresponsibleforhisstudents'knowledgeofP.E. Ashisteachingevolved,however,therewascultivatedmoreofanemphasisonthe humanelement--"Ialwaysstressedfundamentalswiththeemphasisonfun."Hebecame lessintentonwinningandachievingandtriedtomakethingsmorefunforhimselfand thestudents,"butstillworkingtoachievemasteryofthesport."Conflictswere experiencedwhenhehadtofightforfundsforP.Ed.andextra-curricularprogramsinthe school.Hedevelopedacloseworkingrelationshipwithanadministratorwhosupported hisprogramsandjokedaroundwithhim. Kent'scurrentemphasisonexcellence,organization,orderandcontrolseemtobe adirectresultofhisearlylifeeffortstoobtaincontroloverhislifewhichwasfraught withparadoxes.Eventhevaluesmodelledbyhisparentswereindirectcontrasttoeach otherandhisfather'slifestyleitselfwascontradictory.Hismotherbroughthimupina strictMormonhouseholdsothatheneverdrankorsmokedatallinhighschooland "neverevensaid'shit'tillhewas16."Shespoiledherchildrenanddevotedherlifeto lookingafterthem.althoughitwasquiteablowforyoungKenttobeoustedfromthe centreofattentionwhenthesecondchildwasborntothefamily. Kent'sfatherontheotherhand,who"drankandsmokedandusedrough language,"wasrarelyathome.Hemadealivingforthefamilybyrunninganillegal gamblinghouseand"makingbookontheraces."Hisfatheravoidedgettingarrested throughacleverschemeofsettingupsomeoneelseto"takethefall"whentherewasapre- arrangedraidontheclub.Hemadeenoughmoneytobringupsixkids"inanicehomein amiddle-classneighborhood."Kent'sfatherwasdefinitelythebossinthefamily, makingwhatseemedlikeunilateraldecisionsthathadfar-reachingeffectsonKent's younglife."Dadbrokemyheartbymovingtoanotherneighborhood"br4'!lginganabrupt endtoapromisingbaseballcareer. Kentnotonlyexcelledinathletics,butalsolovedschool.Hewas"wayaheadin readingbecausehereadcomicbookslikecrazy."Hewasthe"smartestboyintheclass-- theonlyonewhounderstoodzeroandcoulddosimplemultiplication."Aslongashe understoodtheteacher'sinstructions,academicscameeasily.Hedevelopedalove-hate relationshipwithateacher,competingforattention,creatinga"realcontestforcontrol oftheclass."Later,throughathleticprowess,Kentsoondiscoveredthathecouldimpress theprettygirls,withsportsgivinghima"vehicleforacceptanceandawaytobepopular." ThesecondthemenotedinKent'spedagogywasfirstoftwothingsthat"made teachingwork"forhim--his"totalloveandcommitmentforP.E.andsports."The studentsknewthathebelievedin,andlived,alltheprinciplesoffitnessandnutrition, readingeverybookandjournalonthesubjectsthathecould.Hetriedtosetanexampleof ahealthylifestyletohisstudents.Henotonlyhadathoroughknowledgeofthesubject matterwhichmadeteachingfun,butalsohadconfidenceinhisabilitytoteachthe contenteffectivelytothestudents. CommitmenttophysicalactivitiesstartedearlyinlifeforKentwhospentan inordinateamountoftimeandenergytryingtogainhisfather'srespectandattention,
particularlythroughathleticachievements.Hemodelledhimselfafterhisfatherwho
was"atremendousfighter,"winningtheGoldenGlovesforwesternCanadathreeyearsin arow.Kenthimselfbecameanaccomplishedathleteinseveralfields,also"boxing goldengloves."SportsgaveKent"anidentity."Heextendedhisinvolvementinathletics toteaching,coachingandlecturing.Hisdeterminationandoverridingsenseof autonomyareexemplifiedbyhiseffortasayoungchild,whenhetaughthimselftotiehis ownshoelacesbyhimselfwhenhewasonlyfouryearsoldandtothisdaytieshislaces "differentthananyoneelse."Inawidevarietyofactivitieshemadeanall-outeffortto besteveryoneelseinthefield--hewasa"fiercecompetitoratmarbles";hewasthelastone
