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LESSON 1 - NOUNS AND ARTICLES COUNTABLE NOUNS a^ book
two
books
a^ person
some
people
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS advice
some
advice
information
some
information
-^
Are always singular.
-^
Most uncountable nouns never take the indefinite article
a / an
-^
Uncountable nouns are always singular.
-^
Uncountable nouns are usually:^ Substances
oil, butter, plastic, water, beer, sugar, etc
Things seen as a mass
furniture, equipm
ent, hair (on your head),
spaghetti, rice, etc
Abstract things
love, beauty, music, knowledge, information, advice, news, etc
Weather phenomena
rain, sunshine, snow, fog, etc
-^
We often use partitive expressions in reference to some uncountable nouns. a piece of furniture/ a piece of equipment a piece of / an item of / a bit of news a piece / a bit of information / advice
NOUNS WHICH CAN BE UNCOUNTABLE OR COUNTABLE WITH A DIFFERENT MEANINGUncountable
Countable
Business
= commercial activity in general
A business
= a firm or organization that produces
and sells things
Hair =
the hair on your head
A hair
= a strand of hair
Experience =
what you have learned from
doing
things in your life
An experience
= some episode in your life that
affects you deeply
Travel =
the activity of visiting other places
Travels
(only plural) = a number of journeys that
you have made
NOUNS THAT ARE ALWAYS PLURAL The
police are
investigating //
Where
are my clothes
? // The
scissors are
in the drawer.
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
are names of groups of things.
Eg:
government, family, team, staff, crew, audience, army, navy etc, public NOUNS WHICH GO TOGETHER (COMPOUND NOUNS) Eg:
a book shop (bookshop), a football match, a two-day journey, a three-week course, a 50-year-old man,
Double genitive: Type 1 construction^ indefinite article /^ demonstrative / numeral /quantity word
noun
of
genitive / possessive pronoun
A^
friend
of
yours
that
book
of
Tina’s
two
paintings
of
ours
a few
hobbies
of
mine
Double genitive: Type 2 construction^ numeral / quantity word
of
possessive adjective
plural noun
one
of^
your
friends
a few
of^
my
hobbies
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS myself, yourself, itself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves^ each other
= reciprocal relationship between two people
one another
= relationship among a group
NB:
They are looking at themselves (in the mirror), They are looking at each other (she is looking at him and he is looking at her) GET + ADJECTIVE / PAST PARTICIPLE This construction indicates a process, something in development. In Italian the same idea is usuallyexpressed with reflexive verbs. Tom is getting tired
It's time to get ready
Rita is getting dressed
We got wet in the rain
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
We use the definite article with:
-^
Mountain chains
:^ the Andes, the Alps
-^
Oceans:
the Pacific, the Atlantic
-^
Rivers:
the Thames, the Tyne, the Danube
-^
Expressions with "north", "south" etc:
the north of England, the south of France
-^
Countries with "of":
the United States (of America), the United Kingdom (of Great Britain)
-^
Groups of islands:
the Canary islands, the Maldives
Specific reference We use the definite article (
the
) before singular and plural countable nouns and before uncountable nouns
when there is specific reference. Eg:
-^
I really enjoyed
the book
that you lent me.
(Definite article + singular countable noun.)
-^
Where are
the children
?^ (Definite article + plural countable noun.)
-^
The information
you gave me isn’t correct.
(Definite article + uncountable noun.)
-^
We use the definite article if we refer to a specific place, building or specific meals. Do you know when
the church
was built?
(= This specific church,
the building itself.)
The school
has a good reputation.
(= This specific school.)
Let’s meet outside
the university
.^ (= Outside the building.)
I enjoyed
the dinner
very much
. (= That particular dinner.)
-^
We can use the definite article + adjective to indicate an entire category of people or things. Eg:
We should do more to help
the elderly
ZERO ARTICLE
-^
We don't use the article with names of individual mountains or lakes:
Everest, Mont Blanc, Lake
-^
We don’t use the definite article before nouns referring to institutions:
school, university, ospital,
church, prison and the names of meals.
-^
generic reference
-^
We don’t use the definite article before plural nouns and uncountable nouns when the reference isgeneral.
(Eg:
Life
can be difficult sometimes.
(= Life in general.))
LESSON 3 - Prepositions, quantifiers and pronouns Prepositions: special cases
1.^
"by" and "within" by + future point in timewithin / in + time period We'll finish the job by Friday.
We'll finish the job within a week/ a few days, etc.
2.^
by the time... (= when) By the time we get home, it will be dark. By the time Martin arrived at the party, some people had already left.
3.^
by now / by then / by a specific time by now = at this time or earlierby then = at that time or earlierby a specific time = at that specific time or earlier Tim's plane should have landed
by now
.^ //
We won't get to the station before
5.
.
By then
, our train will have already left.
//
Tom said he would be here
by 10 o’clock
, but he
hasn’t arrived yet.
4.^
in + genitive + time / in + time period in a week's time (=a week from now) // in 2 days' time (= 2 days from now) //
in 5 minutes
We're going on holiday in two days' time // I’ll be ready in five minutes
5.^
until + point in time Until + point in time = continuity up to a future point in time We waited
until midnight
, but Frank didn’t arrive.
Don't switch off the machine
until the red light stopsflashing
6.^
"on time" and "in time" on time = punctually, at the correct time
Our plane landed
on time
in time = with time to spare There was a lot of traffic on the road but I managed to get
home
in time
for dinner.
We arrived at the station
in time
to buy our tickets and have a coffee before getting the train.
7.^
"at the end" and "in the end" at the end = the end of something. At the end of the film
, John and Rita get married.
At the end of the lesson
, I went to the library.
in the end = a conclusion There was a bus strike and we didn't know how to get home.
In the end
, we had to take a taxi.
The man was drunk and he refused to leave the building.
In the end
, we had to call the police.
8.^
"over" and "under"
-^
over = more than
Tom's new car cost
over
30,000 euros.
-^
over = covering
He put a blanket
over
the sleeping child.
-^
under = less than
Entrance is free for children
under
five.
(= children less than five years old)
-^
under = extending below something.
He put his suitcase
under
the bed.
9.^
"above" and "below" above = in a higher position
He hung the picture
above
the fireplace.
below = in a lower position
Jim lives on the floor
below
mine.
Quantifiers and the use of “some”, “any”, etc
1.^
"ANY" - SPECIAL CASES We can use "any“, by itself or in compounds, to indicate "it doesn't matter what / which / who etc": Take
any
card that you want.
He is prepared to do
anything
to get success.
Compounds with "-ever" are similar:som
I'll go
wherever
you decide // Take
whichever
card you want // He'll do
whatever
is necessary to get success.
2.^
SOMETHING / ANYTHING... + INFINITIVE I'd like
something to drink
Is there
anything to eat
Tom has got
nothing to do
this afternoon
3.^
SOMETHING / ANYTHING + ADJECTIVE I want to read
something interesting
Is there
anything good
on TV tonight?
4.^
A LITTLE / A FEW a little + uncountable noun
= a small amount, but sufficient
a few + countable noun
= a small number, but sufficient
There's
a little bread
and cheese so we can make a sandwich.
There are
a few vegetables
in the fridge. We can easily make a salad.
5.^
LITTLE / FEW
little + uncountable noun
= a small amount and insufficient
few + countable noun
= a small number and insufficient
There's
little time
before our train. We can't stop for a coffee
There were
few people
interested in the proposal so we had to cancel it.
Note the following examples with “only” and “very” to give emphasis: Only a little.
Eg:
There’s
only a little cheese
, not enough for two sandwiches.
Only a few.
Eg:
There are
only a few tomatoes
Very little.
Eg:
There is
very little time
before our plane
Very few.
Eg:
There are
very few minutes
before our plane.
Note also the construction “too + little / few”: Too little.
Eg:
There’s
too little butter
to make any biscuits.
Too few.
Eg:
There are
too few eggs
to make a cake.
Comparing nouns
Comparative form:
-^
more + countable / uncountable noun.
Tom ate
more sandwiches
than Kate
.^ Tom ate
more food
than Kate
-^
less + uncountable.
Eg:
Kate ate
less food
than Tom
-^
fewer + countable noun.
Eg:
Kate ate
fewer sandwiches
Superlative form: the most + countable / uncountable noun Robert ate
the most sandwiches
Bill ate
the most food
the fewest + countable noun Sarah ate
the fewest sandwiches
of all.
the least + uncountable noun Rita ate
the least food
of everyone.
COMPARISON OF EQUALITY as much as
with uncountable words
as many as
with countable words
Tom doesn't earn
as much (money) as
his wife.
There were
not as many people
at the concert
as
I expected.
LESSON 5 – Past tense review The simple past We use the simple past to describe:^ •
Completed actions/situations/events
( I^
enjoyed
my childhood // My parents
were born
in Wales
My
wife and I first
met
in Paris)
•^
With expressions of finished time.
( Tom
arrived last night
// We
moved
to Birmingham
when I was a
child
// Rita
bought
a new car
a few months ago)
•^
Sequences of events in the past.
( We
got up
at about 8 o'clock and
had
breakfast. Then we
decided
to
go out for a walk along the river. We
walked
as far as the next village, where we
bought
some bread)
The past progressive We use the past progressive to describe
incomplete actions
in the past:
Tom broke his arm while he
was playing
rugby.
"Why didn't you answer the phone?" "Because I
was having
a bath."
The fire started while the hotel guests
were sleeping
Used to
-^
Affirmative
:^ used + to do
( I used to live in Bristo)
-^
Negative
: didn’t use to do
( Sally didn’t use to be a vegetarian)
-^
Question
: did + subject + use to do
( Did Bob use to drive a Mercedes?)
USE
: a.^
Habitual actions in the past which no longer occur
(es.
We
used to study
a lot when we were at
school.
(= We don't go to school now //
I^ used to play
football when I was younger)
b.^
Past situations which are no longer the case
(es.
Tom
didn't use to like
beer.
(= But now he does))
The past perfect
-^
Affirmative
:^ had + past participle
-^
Negative
: hadn’t + past participle
-^
Question
: had + subject + past participle
USE
We use the past perfect to specify that one action in the past occurred before another one:
When I got home, I realized that I
had left
my bag in the office.
Tom told me that he
had finished
his homework.
After we
had had
dinner, we watched television.
"After" and "afterwards"
-^
"after" is a conjunction or preposition
-^
"afterwards" is an adverb After the film
, we went to a pub.
After watching the film
, we went to a pub.
We saw a film and
afterwards we went to a pub
We saw a film.
Afterwards we went to a pub
TRANSLATE:
The present perfect progressive have / has + been + -ing
Have
you
been waiting
long?
USE: 1.^
With "for" and "since" To emphasise that something started in the past and continues up to the present. Or to emphasiserepeated actions in a time period that began in the past and continues up to the present.
-^
for + period of time
(ES.
We've been waiting
for 20 minutes)
-^
since + point in time
(ES. He has been writing letters
since 9 o’clock
this morning)
-^
NB: all + time expression
(ES.
I’ve been trying to contact Bill
all day
. But his phone is always
switched off).
Some verbs can't take the progressive form, so we use the present perfect simple
instead of the
progressive form:
I^ have known
Bob since my school days.
Some verbs can take both forms:
A.^
I^ have lived
in Birmingham all my life.
(= This is a fact. It has been true for a long time.
B.^
I^ have been living
in Birmingham for a couple of years.
(= The time period is shorter. It may not be a
permanent fact.) A.^
I^ have been working
all day.
(= Continuously working.)
B.^
I^ have worked
in a bank since I left university 20 years ago.
(= This is a fact.)
2.^
For actions that continued for a period in the past, but which have just finished.
Normally there is
present evidence for the past action:
"Why are your clothes covered in white paint?"
"I'
ve been decorating
the house."
Sandra's eyes are red because she
has been crying
Present perfect: simple v. progressive The present perfect simple usually refers to
completed
actions:
I' ve read
10 chapters of my book so far.
The present perfect continuous usually
refers to unfinished actions or actions in progress for a period of
time: I' ve been reading
a very interesting book.
(I haven’t finished it yet.)
I' ve been studying
all day! I’m really tired!
THE CONSTRUCTION
:^ It has been (is) + period + since + past tense
It
has been
3 years since I last
saw
Gary.
Sometimes we have:
It'
s been
a long time since we
have had
a decent holiday.
NB:
How long is it since we last went out to a restaurant? The past perfect continuous
Affirmative
:^ had + been + -ing
Negative
: hadn’t + been + -ing
Question
: had + subject + been + -ing
USE
To describe something that was in progress for a period before something else happened: Jane
had been living
in London for 5 years when she met Ted
