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Intercultural communication Intercultural communication is focused on the word ‘’difference’’, communication between people of different cultural groups. as a field it was created with different perspectives to approach with. It is designed to increase sensibility to cultural heterogeneity and cultural self- awareness. it can be developed and analyzed in everyday life with social media etc. according to collins dictionary culture is:
- it consists of activities such as the arts and philosophy, which are considered to be important for the development of civilization and of people’s mind
- is a particular society or civilization, especially considered in relation to its beliefs, way of life or art
- the culture of a particular organization or group consists of the habits of the people in it and the way they generally behave
- in science, a culture is a group of bacteria or cells which are grown, usually in a laboratory as part of an experiment. so defining culture in everyday language is like : ‘’high culture’’/arts being culturated a way of life of a particular group agriculture/biological culture culture vs. nature (broad definition) in a historical perspective, culture has its etymology from latin ‘’colere’’ and it’s the tending of natural growth. gradually came to be associated with bourgeois culture as an archived state of individuals and societies. at the end of 18th Century it was often used interchangeably with civilization as an achieved state of development of a society. Anthropological and sociological concept; an independent term designing a collective (homogenous) trait of “a people” (national or ethnic communities) (Johann GoDried Herder) → different cultures in the plural culture is now used as a plural because of the aim of a national value of different cultures in a big unit. Presentazione
Culture is one of the most widely used terms in the social sciences and it has several meanings and synonyms such as civilization, custom, myth, perspective etc. This word was often treated as interchangeable with civilization but in some contexts their meanings began to diverge other tensions belong to the fact if it is singular or plural →in the 18th century it was claimed by Herder that there is a variety of independent cultures very broad conception from sociology →focusing on the means by which people make sense of and give significance to what they experience taxonomy of meanings of culture aesthetic cultivation culture in singular (varying in degree, mostly positive) universal human ideals associated to ‘’high culture’’ culture (positive is contrasted to civilization (negative) implies value judgmental developmental culture as singular (varying in degree, positive) covers all aspects of human life societies or segments of it are viewed as possessing different ‘’degrees’’ of culture (subject to change over time) culture and civilization treated as synonyms implies value judgment cultures as distinct ways of life culture in plural (descriptive approach) a plurality of different cultures exist (usually understood as clearly distinct, homogeneous wholes - ‘’folk cultures’’ and encompassing all aspects of life) studying (synchronically) other cultures not their evolution culture as meaning-making culture as process rather than object how people make sense of experiences signs, symbols, construction of meaning of the world
differences between inter-, trans-, and multi- interculturality/ intercultural →refers to the interaction and engagement of multiple cultures. It is a particular kind of interaction or communication among discourses, one in which differences in cultures play a role in creation of meaning. Interculturalism is the process of delivery of meaning among cultures cross- culturality/ cross- cultural →refers to a particular kind of contact among people, one in which the people are from two or more different cultures. multiculturality/ multicultural →refers to the coexistence of several cultures within one society (classroom, working group etc...) descriptive sense →interchange and communication that take place between representative of different cultures normative sense →it encourages dialogue between cultures in order to promote social cohesion and prevent or avoid social conflict and instability transculturality/ transcultural →aims at offering an alternative framework within which to map cultural interactions: passes through boundaries accepts the results of globalization: discards “a conception of cultures as islands or spheres more nuanced and multidimensional understanding of the relationships between tradition, national culture, context, and the individual multiculturality →variety of communities sharing the same geographic place, for example lisbon. descriptive sense →society as a patchwork of different cultural communities living side by side normative sense →in public discourse includes a political argument for equality and equity between these different cultures. any intercultural interaction involves: the possibility to gain knowledge about the other and about oneself (positive side) stereotyping and discrimination related to historical, social or political contexts (negative side) any successful intercultural interaction presupposes a process of learning about the other and about oneself →‘i’ and ‘thou’ relation intercultural communication can allow us to step outside of our usual frame of reference and see our culture through a different perspective we become more aware of our own culture by better understanding other cultures
6 reasons: the self-awareness imperative →awareness of our cultural identity and background (know yourself); “the study of intercultural communication begins as a journey into another culture and reality and ends as a journey into one’s own culture”
- THE SELF-AWARENESS IMPERATIVE – Possible Challenges Unawareness of our own ethnocentrism, cultural lens/bias Implications: Can lead to conflict (as we refuse to expand our cultural horizons and/or to acknowledge the legitimacy of diverse cultural practices) Awareness that one is trapped in political, economic, and historical systems - not of our own making (e.g., slights, privilege) ethnocentrism →a tendency to think that our own culture is superior to other cultures; from greek ‘’ethnos’’ (nation) ‘’kentron’’ (center) learning is not always easy or comfortable (awareness of our own ethnocentrism, bias)
- the demographic imperative increasing diversity of the world →impact on various fields ex sports, workforce, academia changes in demographic patterns →demographics is the characteristics of a population (race, ethnicity, age, sex and income); ethnic and racial diversity + older population + religious diversity migrant/ immigrant →the UN Migration Agency (IOM) defines a migrant as any person who is moving or has moved across an international border or within a state easy from his/her habitual place of residence, regardless of: the person’s legal status whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary what the causes for the movement are what the length of the stay is diversity in portuguese academia →statistics tell us that in 2020 there were almost 65, foreign students enrolled in portuguese universities. they already represent 16,5 % of the student population. migration is not a NEW phenomenon:
- the ethical imperative ethics →principles of conduct that help govern behaviors of individuals and groups ability to change one’s own perspective and the awareness that perspectives can be very different is a key factor for successful intercultural communication
- Values are very often seen as at the foundation of “culture”, and they are so deeply rooted that most people find it difficult to negotiate about them.
- How can we really live together interculturally then?
- Are there some common values everybody can agree on?
- How do you live together if you cannot agree on values?
- What kind of “working arrangements” could you make? diversity of perspectives- culture is only one aspect
- Culture is only one aspects among others for understanding the behavior of others....
- Not all ("ethical") conflicts can be explained by cultural differences
- Not all persons categorized according to a particular group share ethics, values and norms, there is always variation and disagreement within any group
- People do not always behave the same!
- (cultural) identity may be inconsistent, negotiated and co-constructed in different situations (icontext)
- the economic imperative globalization →the creation of a world market in goods, services, labor, capital and technology impacts marketing product development contact with clients and suppliers workforce management group dynamics at work among colleagues problematic ads and intercultural (in)competence
diversity management has become increasingly important: widespread management approach aims at more inclusive organizations (institutions & companies) Cultural differences in business practices and work ethics Increasing valorization of international experiences of employees volunteer services); master programs in (traineeships and University); diversity chief officer positions (in management of cultural diversity (e.g. Tilburg all major corporations) Important terms: diversity →Refers to range of human differences and has many dimensions. It is what makes us unique. equity → Refers to fair treatment for all people. Equity takes into consideration a person’s circumstances, adjusting unique treatment accordingly so that the end result is equal. intersectionality →complex, cumulative way in which discrimination (such as racism, overlap, or intersect, especially in sexism, and classism) combine, overlap or intersect, especially in the experiences of marginalized individuals or groups. intersectional approach: seeks to identify and address processes of marginalization and exclusion within anti- discrimination efforts that focus solely on one dimension it aims at fighting discrimination within discrimination, tackling inequalities within inequalities, and protecting minorities within minorities. dimensions of diversity (that shape and impact both the individual and the organization itself) personality: primary →age, gender, sex, religion etc secondary →income, habits, qualifications, attitudes etc. organizational →field and content of work, department etc. diversity management contextualized DM emerged in the US (mainly 1980s) to replace affirmative action programmes meant to promote employment and career development of Black and later also female employees
- Shift of focus from equality (ethical aims) to economic impact/benefit
initiatives often rely on binary and fixed identity categories →binary understanding of gender and sex: marginalization of intersexuality and transgenderism; focus on cultural origins, nationality, race (often conflated with religion) although many studies point to positive economic impact of DM, there are also contradictory findings •In terms of equality, not every injustice in terms of groups corresponds to injustice in terms of all individuals categorized according to these groups
- •Some authors point out the risk of depoliticization
- •related to the focus on economic benefits post WWII period →need for practical approach for communication in international politics and business; consolidation of leading position of US edward t. hall → leading figure; publication of silent language (1959); 1946 →the creation of the foreign service institute (FSI) →development of material and training for personal overseas consolidation of the discipline →first workshop at pittsburgh university in the late 1960s; in 1970s IC divisions in several professional association linked to communication; 1980s, significant research initiatives in different countries different developments in different academic fields countries →Us, multicultural society and international relation (social sciences); Japan →linked to english skills and business relations; EU, geert hofstede’s research on national cultures (social psychology, management) From national culture to more a complex understanding of culture →While IC initially focused on context between individuals/groups from different countries, contemporary approaches criticize simplistic concepts of "national cultures" intercultural communication is interdisciplinarity linguistics: the role of the language in intercultural interaction + how language represents reality the sapir- whorf hypothesis (linguistic relativity) strong version: language shapes and determines the way we understand our reality (e.g. personal pronouns and degrees of formality; navajo language and the absence of possessive pronouns →particular conception of possession or property; ‘’(non)- gendered’’ language →shape feelings towards e.g. objects weaker version →language does not precede thought processes; language, thought and perception are interrelated and our language encourages patterns of perception
anthropology →the role culture plays in our lives and the relevance of nonverbal communication psychology →notions of stereotyping (e.g. categorizing, simplification) and the impact of prejudice on our lives and intercultural interactions the relation between culture and power should be taken into consideration (but not all disciplines do so..) the definition of how culture is understood is shaped by scholars’ research paradigms (which at least partly correlate with disciplines…) paradigm →A framework that serves as the worldview of researchers. Different paradigms assume different interpretations of reality, human behavior, culture, and communication. 4 approaches to studying IC: the social science (or functionalist) approach →become influential in the 1980s; psychology and sociology. assumptions: there is a describable, external reality; human behaviors are predictable; culture is a variable that can be measured. Aims: to identify and explain cultural variations in communication and to predict behaviour and future communication. Methods: quantitative methods, such as surveys and observation the interpretive approach →gained prominence in the 1980s; anthropology and sociolinguistics. Assumptions: knowing mind contributes actively to the construction of knowledge and reality; culture is socially constructed; human experience is subjective and human behavior can’t be determined nor can be easily predicted. Aims: understanding rather than predicting human communication behavior. Methods: qualitative research methods (capture own meanings of people) the critical approach →influenced by critical theory, british cultural studies: media studies, organizational communication, cultural studies, but less visible in mainstream intercultural communication scholarship. Assumptions: Reality is consctructued and subjective, but this construction takes place in specific historical (ideological & historical) contexts ;b) communication is dependent on context and power relations (embedded in specific situations, environments and historical contexts); c) Culture is a site of struggle, where multiple interpretations of the world come together; d) Culture is not only constructed but also open to change. Aims: to understand human behavior and change the lives of everyday communicators (by helping them identify and resist forces of power and oppression). Methods: Interviews, focus groups b) textual/discourse analyses of a wide range of cultural products (TV programs, films, newspapers, literary texts, social media, among many) the dialectical approach
patterns or rules that individuals follow in specific contexts describing communication patterns within one speech community but there are also intercultural and cross-cultural studies sometime interpretative studies also employ certain functionalist assumptions/methods aims (e.g fixed group membership) implications for the understanding of culture: culture is socially constructed and emergent rather than defined a priori culture is not (necessarily) limited to nation-state collectives implications for research perspective and design: research is often conducted from insider perspective, where the framework and interpretations emerge from the cultural community participant observation →A research method where investigators interact extensively with the cultural group being studied rhetorical approach →A research method, dating back to ancient Greece, in which scholars try to interpret the meanings or persuasion used in texts or oral discourses in the contexts in which they occur. focus groups →“The Focus Group (FG) is a social research method widely used in contemporary qualitative research. It is based on the interaction among participants in a small group (usually 7 –10 people) produced by researchers with the aim of gaining scientific knowledge.“ (Frisina 2018, 189) qualitative data: descriptive, relating to words and language describes certain attributes, and help us to understand the ‘’why’’ or ‘’how’’ behind certain behaviors dynamic and subjective, open to interpretation gathered through observations and interviews analyzed by grouping the data into meaningful themes or categories strengths →emphasizes the importance of investigating communication context / understanding phenomena subjectively →enables a more in-depth understanding of communication patterns within specific communities limitations →lack of intercultural communication studies and comparative studies ii. researchers may offer inaccurate communication patterns descriptions since they are often outsiders to the communities under investigation (e.g., negative labels applied to marginalized cultural groups)
what can be studied for the critical approach: how power functions in cultural situations Usually focus is set on macrostructures (political and social structures that influence communication) Wide range of cultural products/texts (TV programs, artworks, literary texts, social media, etc.) implications for research perspective and design: national culture as a site of struggle →no unity, linked to power structures within a society (a means of dominations and contestation) Implications for the understanding of culture:
- Culture is socially constructed and emergent rather than definied a priori
- Culture is not (necessarily) limited to nation-state collectives • Class, race, gender
- Sub-cultures (fan-cultures etc.)
- "Culture, then, is not just a variable, nor benignly socially constructed, but a site of struggle where various communication meanings are contested" (Marin &Nakayama 1999, 8) implications for research perspective and design: Interest in understanding the sociohistorical contexts in which intercultural encounters take place (particularly power relations) Interest in understanding how to change society/culture Cultural texts/artifacts/discourses textual analysis →Examination of cultural texts such as media (television, movies, journalistic essays, and so on.) strengths →emphasizes the power relations in communication and the importance of macro-contexts – how social and historical context influence intercultural relations (e.g. colonialist legacy, hybrid cultural identities) limitations →it does not focus on face-to-face intercultural interaction ii. more difficult to link it to practices of intercultural communication of face-to-face contact (e.g. doesn’t offer guidelines to better communicate across racial lines, but on how certain discourses (eg. racist discourse) are displayed in popular media) iii. Offers little empirical data the functionalist approach:
public (strangers, public events) contact cultures vs. noncontact cultures →in “contact” cultures, people maintain closer interpersonal areas (ex. southern europe and arab countries); it is common to keep eye- contact, touch someone during communications and speak in louder voices. in “noncontact” cultures, people maintain wider interpersonal spacing (ex. north america and northern europe); eye-contact is less common, touching is avoided, and voices are kept at a quite tone. context is essential as well (ex. public transportations)
2. chronemics monochronic orientation →time is linear, with one event happening at a time, which is a commodity. time can be gained, lost, spent, wasted or saved (time is money). being punctual, completing tasks, and keeping to schedules is valued. schedules are usually respected. one appointment/meeting at a time. polychronic orientation →time is more holistic, and perhaps more circular. time management is less important : schedules, deadlines etc. several events can happen at once, multitasking. interpersonal relationships are valued. 3. high/low context cultures describes differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultural groups. high context- communication (indirect) low context communication (direct) context according to hall →the information that surrounds an event; the elements that combine together to give meaning to an event are different depending on the culture, gender, age, etc. high context: contextual information about individuals are important to interpersonal and professional relations personal relationships are very important (also in business/ professional relationships) non- verbal communication is very important communication is rather implicit
identity strongly relies on groups (collectivism) professional relationships are based on trust and developed over time avoid saying no directly information is obtained mainly through informal network/contacts conflicts have to be solved before work can begin low context: contextual information about individuals is less important for interpersonal and particularly professional relations professional relationships are rather impersonal information is transmitted mainly through words communication is very explicit identity relies mainly on own personality and accomplishments (individualism) professional relationships develop faster and are less permanent (trust is less important) say no directly instructions are usually very specific and information is transmitted via formal, well- defined channels conflicts do not necessarily have to be solved in order to work together, but can be kept “at a distance” geert hofstede (1928-2020): dutch social psychologist/interdisciplinary researcher pioneering empirical study at IBM (1967-1973) data from 41 countries common cultural dimensions (‘’way of unpackaging the holistic concept of culture’’) contrastive approach, focused on qualifying cultural differences between country cultural values (scale) culture’s consequences: international differences in work-related values (1980, 1st edition) ‘’ founder of comparative intercultural research’’ worldwide impact on psychology, management and intercultural communication/business
clinician advice and sugges<ons, ask ques<ons, and expect to be involved in the development of interven<on plans.
- individualism (IDV) →it’s the extent to which people feel independent as opposed to being interdependent as members of larger wholes. it doesn’t mean egoism but it means that individual choices and decisions are expected. collectivism doesn’t mean closeness. it means that one "knows one's place" in life, which is determined socially. With a metaphor from physics, people in an individualistic society are more like atoms flying around in a gas while those in colletivist societies are more like atoms fixed in a crystal. individualist would agree: If an individual thinks of a different way to perform a task, that person should be encouraged to do it that way. It is important that people have lots of free 6me to pursue heir own interests. When children become 21years of age, they should be encouraged to move away from home. It is important that I receive individual recogni6on at work. When I work on group projects, it is important for me to be the leader. collectivists would agree: It is important that people conform to company norms in order to reach company goals. I would always cooperate to keep group harmony Parents have the right to choose the spouse for their children. If I were given a large sum of money, I would share it equally with members of my family. When working on a project, I would rather work as a group member than as an individual.
- masculinity (MAS) →it’s the extent to which the use of force is endorsed socially. in a masculine society , men are supposed to though and also to be from mars, women from venus and winning is important for both genders. quantity is important and big is beautiful. in a feminine society, the genders are emotionally closer. competing is not so openly endorsed and there is sympathy for the underdog. this is NOT about
individuals but about expected emotional gender roles. masculine societies are much more openly gendered than feminine societies. for individuals from a highly masculine cultural background, mothers may tend to feel more comfortable dealing with the emotional implications of a diagnosis from a clinician, while fathers may feel more comfortable handling the factual aspects of the situation and show less emotion in response to a diagnoses. in a clinical situation, this may include appointment scheduling, payment, and questions for the clinician. in feminine culture these roles in clinical interactions may be more evenly split across the male and female members of a family and emotional responses may be more clearly observed across both genders. .
