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2 general questions (what was the topic as relevant and why/ why politeness or indirect communication is relevant) 3 question—description of a short text (point out elements that can be used to convince potential investors, elements that are useful to inform in a proper way Language use and effective communication genre—kind of documents used in the financial world Reasoning, and argumentation in context—a fundamental component of financial communication (we have to convince and find right arguments) Exam There will be a written examination which consists of three open questions on topics covered in the course. Two questions regard theoretical issues, whereas in the third question an application of the course contents to a concrete text is required. The test will run for 60 minutes. The final mark, on a 30-point scale, will be based on the student’s knowledge and understanding of the topics assessed through the first question as well as on the student’s ability to apply the knowledge assessed through the other questions.
Early exam—The end of November (last Friday 29 Nov)
Communication: transmission of information from an individual to another individual
Communication: Com—prefix (it is an ancient word, togheter, a value which is shared ‘a
shared gift’, when you communicate you share something with a value and we create a
value—which is something that has beeen created which is new smth that is added to
what you already have). We have to pay attention in how we are creating the new text.
2 meaning:
- Process (of creating a good) is something you get involved and smth you do, you are
creating the value
- The result of the process (the good itself), what you have created
You use words and create smth new, there are not only words (they are keys to a world of
knowledge, and you can discover it if you are able to interprete the message—undesrtand
what is implicite give you the possibility to understand the goals of the speaker).
Communication is complex, there are 2 dimension:
- Interpersonal dimension: there are interlocutors (come to contact and exchange
messages)
- Cognitive dimension: knowledge dimension, the meaning that is shared among people
There are different documents and texts, and each one has its own style (it also referes to
the interpersonal dimension, according to the person you are speaking to you change the
way you communicate).
These dimensions are intertwined:
How you communicate depends on the relationship between you and your interlocutor.
Depends if you are familiar, if you want to be polite, so the interpersonal dimension
influences the choice of words.
Ex. Asian and European cultures—using questions is more polite (could you please…),
rather better that imperative (use it with family)
Collaps of communication (mutual understanding)—when you don’t understand how to
adress to other people. Breakdown communication, results are waste of time or contrast
in an organization.
Small talk—weather, famous people, talking about smth which is not so relevant. We can
develop a relationship, without paying attention to what we are talking about.
Ex.
Germans prefer to deal with real things at the beginning and than small talk.
Americans and Italians are different prefer small talk at the beginning.
A shared knowledge is required as a common ground in communication:
German you shake hands when you aquiattent to someone and you should not touch
people (you are not respectfull).
Mediterranean area, you touch people
Non verbal behavior is part of our common ground (cultural awareness—how to behave in
a culture)
Ex. ’Cat lives matters’—quotation it is intertextual, and you understand it because you
have a previous knowledge (common ground)
Each organization has its own language (is part of your common ground)
Common ground:
‘I remind you that you are reponsible for the smooth running of this department’—I remind
you smth ‘the interlocutor must be responsible’, and I can undesratnd this message if I
have specific knowledge (the meaning is related to the context and your experience, we
need previous knowledge and be part of a community).
Communities have, share and change a knowledge and maybe you intergrate your
common ground (you enrich the knowledge of a culture). You change the worldview
(communicating is changing the world).
Lot of thing are not explisit (common ground is the foundation of a given authorants).
Ex. ’Africa must substitute food imports by pr5oducing locally’
Africa (refers to people in Africa, you understand the real meaning when you consider the
whole paper and your knowledge)
You take from granted that food is important in Africa
All this information is the common ground (the procedure is important—the way we
understand a text, you can do it if you have a common ground)
The hidden part of a message is often decisive:
Iceberg (you can see the top, the rest is hidden)
Our way of living and experience is like this—very often what is hidden is more relevant
Our ability to read between the lines
Cognitive dimension has 2 components:
- What is explicitly said
- What remains implicit
Everythig in ouf life can be used for implicit communication and we must be very involved
in analysing conversation (to understand).
Contextual:
- it always happens in a larger context, be that a certain amount of previous knowledge, the physical environment, the emotional mood of the communication event, the meaning or the purposes (which may be overt or hidden) behind the communication. Context: knowledge about the physical enviroment. A lot of what we communicate is not expressed—people are able to derived what is implicit. You have to read between the lines.
A characteristic of communication:
- everything that we do “communicates” (intentionally or not intentionally – even what we would not like to communicate) - it is impossible for us to stop communicating Everything we do communicate smth:
- Intentionally
- Non intentionally Hidden communication (manipulators are skilled in this way), you should not grasp. Often we dont want that other people can grasp smth about me. People can undarstnd a lot about you through signals or movements. It can be dangerous and we should control ourself (other people are there). Noise
- Noise is any sensory data that is part of the context of communication but is not part of the actual communication event itself.
- It can enhance the communication process, or it can detract from it.
- Do not confuse “noise” here with mere sounds; it also includes nonauditory “noise.”
- This may be a headache from an argument with a close friend just prior to the communication event. It may be something taken for granted such as the weather, the time of day, or the season. It may include distractions from the competing agendas of each person participating in the event, etc. Noise can be positive or negative (positive or negative impact in communication). It is everything that can occour, can disturb the process of communication. Communication is smth that occours in the real world (we intereact with people, we develop plan, communication has to do with reality and history). It has an anthropological value. Communication as a dialogue In its very root, communication is dialogue. When you communicate you need another person to refer to. Without an interlocutor, no communication takes place. This is clear for spoken dialogue. But also written language is dialogic in nature: you write for someone else - for another person or for yourself taken as your interlocutor in the inner dialogue. DIA: interraction. Everything we say is an answer to a question (without people no language has a meaning). Meaning is smth that has been communicated (social phenomenon). What can be made accesible to other people (not what you want to expressed, but what other people can understand). 2 famous scholars said that there are 2 main features: creativity and authoritative (you make the experience of the other person, according to your interlocutors and not you, so you have be prepared, you construct a message to get with another person—joint activity) CO-CONSTRUCTION IN COMMUNICATION When you speak you are not alone, so communication is a two-way process: speaking and listening. A message is co-constructed: both interlocutors collaborate in communication. A concrete act of verbal communication has an intrinsic social nature. It is a building block of social life. So e ff ective communication is essential to each organization
It is a 2 way procces (speaking and listening at the same time, both collaborate). A building block of European culture
- (^) Aristotle, Politics: (ancient plural and used as a translation of greek plural—‘polis’: society, community ‘aggregation of people’)
- (^) logos is the base of the polis (claim: a stand point, point of view, you belifs—you have to prove it) Polis means to recognize what is good and bad, right and wrong. Logos is the langiage that describe what is good and bad, right and wrong. Only humans can make use of logos (you need words and not sounds)—it is a gift and a base of society. (In Politics it is claimed that the polis needs to state and recognize publicly what is right and what is wrong, what is good and what is bad; and logos – i.e. language used to describe what is the case or what can be the case - is the only way for people to state (to say) what is right and what is wrong, what is good and what is bad Then, logos – i.e. language – is the base of the polis. Society is made possible by speech. The life of each organization depends on language. Language vs speech (cerca) Without labguage no business is possible—important for agreements (it is a contract). Commitment—you commit yourself to a future behaviour (it is an agreement, there are laws).
Effective communication
Some factors are recognized by all practitioners as decisive for an e ff ective communication: Being aware of what you intend to communicate. (What do you mean when you speak /write?) Ability to organize a written document or develop an oral conversation in a manner appropriate to the circumstances. (How do you build up your meaning?) Speaking clearly with fluency. (What expressions should be chosen?) Writing without mistakes and with the right word choice, delivering your message with appropriate volume and tone. etc,. These recommendations are rather obvious and superficial. More substantial points should be added.
Effective—how to impress, be aware of what we want to communicate.
How to organize meaning (each document has specific patterns, ex. financial document
has a structure—according to the structure you organize the text).
EFFICIENT COMMUNICATION AT THE INTERPERSONAL LEVEL – WITH ATTENTION TO THE
INTERCULTURAL DIMENSION
You do not only speak. You also listen. How does your interlocutor behave when you speak? Feedback is essential. Do you let your interlocutor make comments, evalutations etc.? Why is this essential? See later. According to the cultural community, interruptions are more or less tolerated. Northern European cultures are less tolerant than Mediterranean and African cultures. European tolerate less interruptions than other socio-cultural communities. Interlocutors behaviour is important (observing people reactions), lot of gestures give us feedback (show me if they understand or if they react). Interruptions can occour, interlocutor can give signals that they want to interrupt (I would like to interrupt you). Sometimes thaey are not so tollerated.
what ist most elevant…
- Accept criticisms!
- Think about other people’s observations!
- Remember: you are not alone.
- Your viewpoints are assumptions, they are not the only possible viewpoint.
- Be tolerant! Respect other people’s right to have their own viewpoint.
- Then use reason. Try to understand what can be accepted as a better solution and what should be rejected as unfounded criticism.
- But do not look at your interlocutors in a negative way just because they disagree with you!
- Their viewpoint is valuable. Cultural differences and interpersonal relationships As we said above, a negotiation develops in different ways according to the culture. In some cultures, first you 'do your homework,' i.e., for example, in a negotiation you start with the important things – which is considered as the very reason of your interaction. Only then do you move on to other things, such as talking about yourself or your family. But while for many cultures it is normal to talk about one's family life, for many Western cultures this topic is avoided. There are cultures that emphasize the social dimension of the person. And there are cultures that foreground the individual dimension of the person. In Western Europe and the U.S. the latter prevail. In other cultures the social dimension prevails and it is normal to talk about the family. For a Westerner, this topic can be felt as an invasion of the private sphere. Repetition in conversation Given the fact that various cultural styles are possible, a certain grade of redundance is always necessary in order to be understood. For this reason, repetition is often needed and welcomed. When you repeat what you have said you can use the same words just spoken or you can use other words and other grammatical constructions. Don't be afraid to repeat something that seems important to you! Repetition has its advantages… Repetition serves to fix the things you want to communicate in the memory of others. Especially in oral cultures, repetition has always been the most important tool to make memory effective and to strengthen socially shared memory. After all, repetition is the basis of advertising. By dint of being repeated, slogans spread and promotional messages are shared by the social group and become part of the common ground. So too does a lot of communication within an organization. Repeating messages strengthens sharing and the sense of belonging to the institution. The power of words Speakers have a great responsibility towards their interlocutors, and also towards their own.
- We do not understand the real power of words.
- With words you can change the world. That’s why communication is so relevant. Perhaps it represents a major instrument for improving an organization:
- It is an important factor in reducing costs and simplifying activities. A lot of waste in a company is due to miscommunication.
And communication is bad above all because we don't believe that communication is important. And often we don't have enough respect for people, especially for subordinates…
- In the course, we will analyse some elements, esp. the implicit component of utterances, the goals of utterances in conversation and the role of argumentation in social life. 19/20-09 no Slides On feedback and its role for an effective communication – also in intercultural settings Warming up - Let us reconsider a concluding remark of last Friday - If you communicate to be understood, then you should :
- establish a common ground with your interlocutors
- find the appropriate words to communicate
- But most of all, you should pay attention to to how your interlocutor reacts. - Encourage feedback! Pay attention to your interlocutors’ viewpoints, to their suggestions and remarks. Feedback at an interactional level - Elements are produced which indicate that the channel works – (‘I am listening / I understand’ etc.) - Verbal signals: - .words (yeah / so / phrases (I see / oh really? / oh, my God etc.) - other sounds (mmh / ah / oh etc.) - Silence (marking non-intervention) [can vary in length, according to cultural traditions] - Non-verbal signals: - .gestures ( kinesics investigates into them, mainly as regards their relation to culture) - .eye contact .body proximity ( proxemics) Feedback at a discourse level Feedback means also what directly follows in discourse. You can have: (we don’t consider here non-verbal reactions like people interrupting the exchange and leaving). Verbal replies: utterances that express agreement / disagreement. - Among these utterances are: - .questions – they can be made to require more information / to repeat or better explain something or they show a critical attitude and are made to start a critical move - .statements which give new information / which recall old information etc. And these statements can be made to agree with the interlocutor or to disagree. - .claims against the interlocutor’s viewpoint - .arguments for or against a previous claim by the interlocutor. - .expressions which only indicate agreement (‘you are right / I agree’ etc.) / disagreement (in this case, reasons are usually given for it). Feedback should be taken into account - Consider people’s reactions at the interactional level (as a rule, they prepare or accompany your interlocutor’s discourse move). - A reasonable attitude: accept criticisms! Think about other people’s observations! - Remember: you are not alone. Your viewpoints are assumptions, they are not the only possible viewpoint.
Warming up – repetition and its advantages
On claims and statements – How to recognize the difference. Examples. And two samples
related to Anglo-American discourse tradition What’s in a claim? On claims and statements How to recognize the difference. Examples. And two samples related to Anglo-American discourse tradition
statements or claims?
- statement - "I own a cell phone," this is not an example of a claim in writing. Assuming that you do, in fact, own a cell phone, this is just a statement of fact. It is not something that is arguable.
- claim - "Every middle school student should have their own cell phone," this is a claim. This is not something that everyone agrees upon, i.e. it is something arguable.
- Your task will be to focus on supporting this claim with evidence.
A passage characterized by a claim
- In a much quoted passage in his inaugural address, President Kennedy said, "Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country." It is a striking sign of the temper of our times that the controversy about this passage centered on its origin and not on its content. Neither half of the statement expresses a relation between the citizen and his government that is worthy of the ideals of free men in a free society.
- The paternalistic "what your country can do for you" implies that government is the patron, the citizen the ward, a view that is at odds with the free man's belief in his own responsibility for his own destiny. The organismic, "what you can do for your country" implies that government is the master or the deity, the citizen, the servant or the votary. To the free man, the country is the collection of individuals who compose it, not something over and above them. He is proud of a common heritage and loyal to common traditions. But he regards government as a means, an instrumentality, neither a grantor of favors and gifts, nor a master or god to be blindly worshipped and served. He recognizes no national goal except as it is the consensus of the goals that the citizens severally serve. He recognizes no national purpose except as it is the consensus of the purposes for which the citizens severally strive. Are these claims or statements? (which of them are arguable?)
- Tailgating can cause car accidents.
- High money issuance can cause an inflationary flush
- Increasing the issuance of money allows the government for greater distribution of financial supports to those with low incomes
- Spending more than an hour per day on housework is a waste of time
- In the long run, welfare impoverishes a country
- I like bananas because they have no bones.
- The trains are often late.
- In case of a crisis, governments often intervene late.
- If economic crises occur, governments should not intervene. Because government intervention always makes the financial situation worse.
Examples of intercultural awareness
Personalities vs realities
- Real property is land and anything that is permanently attached to the land or is difficult to move. Examples of real property include:
- homes and buildings with a foundation; structures that have altered the landscape, like swimming pools; etc.
- Personal property is not attached to a permanent location and can be removed easily or with minimal effort. When these items are removed, it will not result in damage to the property. Personal property can be tangible or intangible. Examples of personal property include:
- furniture; televisions and portable entertainment equipment; microwaves, printers, computers, radios etc.;
- branding rights and intellectual property;
- stocks and bonds; money.
“things” that characterize an individual person (and they can be understood, though not
shared by other people).
First layer:
All humans have a language and learn a culture (we born and we are incultureted, than we
grew up and according to your society you shape your thought—process of inculturation)
each individuals are cultural persons.
- We find the universals we all share as humans – among them there are - language, thought, the process of enculturation, - myth frameworks, values (however you understand them – e.g. what does meke your life
‘meaningful’?)
- sociability, - institutions necessary for survival of human societies (e.g., kinship, economics, education,
politics, recreation, various types of association, health, transportation, etc.).
- our ability to learn and grow,
and so on, etc., itd, usw.
The second layer includes the specific values and worldview of the largest cultural (or
national) unit that people identify as their own. They provide the “rule book” by which
people from that culture operate in meeting their universal needs.
Each participant also has cultural specifics that frame the way he or she sees and
understands the world.
This component of the meaning includes such things as worldview, religion, values, social
structures and roles, and decision-making rules.
The third layer involves the reality that many of us are part of subcultures within the larger
societal or national setting.
Much intercultural communication research focuses on the second and third layers.
At the fourth and final layer we consider that people – even those of the most collective
cultures – are still individuals and choose how they will live by cultural rules.
It also reflects that as a genetically unique person who has a unique history, everyone has
varying skills in applying his or her cultural rules to the situations of life.
This is the layer at which individual idiosyncrasy emerges.
Some cultures allow this layer to be valued, while others (the “collective cultures”) value
less idiosyncrasy and greater harmony and conformity.
Individual characteristics are not deleted by culture!
- Not all people operate in congruence with their culture. E.g. If a person is from a collective culture she won’t always act as we expect a “collective person” to act. - Even in the most collective of subcultures, people are not identical. - Ways in which they are not identical include such things as - cognitive style, communication skills, knowledge, personality, total history of relationship with other(s), and life history and experiences. - Each brings this into communication acts.
Argumentation is framed by culture.
Cognitive style—the way you learn and understand things
Communication skills—you need training
The way you relate to other people (culture can shape it).
Tension between culture (set of patterns of behaviour, values, worldviews shared by
groups of people) and the way you affirm your personality.
Tools of the culture:
Language—we live in a global village (McLuhan), there are no boundaries/ The medium is
a message—a message becomes important because you heard by people
Non verbal system communication (how you organize the space)
According to the language words can show us the world in difefrent ways.
Real T (real property)—smth you own and can not be moved (house, garden)
Personal property—it can be moved (cell)
Public school—building not the home of pupils (where pupils coming from different
families are put together)
Private school—schooling at home
Intercultural communication:
Being able to understand the interlocutor viewpoint.
Common code—most important is English (it has lost typical features of that community)
The most mportant thing is coming to understanding and not only following the grammar
rules.
Formal communication in which you use a common language.
Slides:
Language and communication - and the ‘global village’
- Two dimensions are most relevant in messages: - The interaction: how people act and interact - The meaning: How people represent the ‘world’ – this relies on culture. - According to language use, there may be di ff erences e.g. partnership, company and corporation; in Italian you have: società; in German: Gesellschaft; in French: société; in Spanish: sociedad; in Russian: ob šč estvo. And: in Switzerland you have: società a garanzia limitata (Sagl) / società anonima (SA); in Italy: società a responsabilità limitata (S.r.l.) / società per azioni (S.p.A.). - Misunderstandings and breakdowns can occur in everyday communication. They can occur – and even characterize – communication among speakers of di ff erent linguistic backgrounds. In intercultural communication, a common code is often used… - It is a common code that has crystallized in the contexts that involve intercultural communication. - It loses its «indigenous» features that have a community-specific communicative function. - It can be used as a generic medium of communication between peoples of di ff erent linguistic backgrounds. A Global language: English English, Chinese and Spanish – but also Urdu/Hindi – are the most spoken languages. But only English is a global language. - Modern Standard Arabic is the koiné of the Arab world
E.g. a polite promise / vs. / a binding promise in West African cultures. The Western
understanding of promising implies a commitment in any case. When you make a
promise, or make an agreement, you commit yourself to a future behaviour.
E.g. Chinese culture considers greetings for old acquaintances – shuren – and not for
strangers – shengren. A rather complex cultural code is at work here.
There are differences—in Chinese culture you greed with family/ if you meet with stragers
you start speaking without greetings (in Italy you greed them)
In an organization if you have to adress smn you start with ‘good morning’.
In certain cultures you need to be more polite than others.
African people—west Africa you can distinguish between 2 promises:
-expressions (you make a promise without make a promise)—making a promise because
you feel the need to be polite (it is an act of being polite, but this is not a promise, when u
make a promise you commit yourself and africans lack this aspects—they have verbal
actions that are not promises)
When you sign a contract you commit yourself to a certain behaviour (future action)—
charachteristic of European cultures (law obliges the person to do smth).
Lot of managers are not aware about the fact that certain culture don’t have the idea of
commitment to obligation (problems in the business field may occour).
Common ground
Not shared information, our knowledge activeted when we communicate
Personal common ground—related to a small group individuals
Activity types—culture can influence it
Type of activity: lecture
They are not the same in the world: ex. Negotiations (there are sattled charachteristics in
different cultures)
Culture—context dependent, smth we share with a smaller group, there are different
levels of what we mean by culture
Ex.—When you go to a restaurant you have an idea of what you are going to do (you want
to eat, Italy). In East Asia you can go to the restaurats and find animals in cages (game—
selvaggina), it is a proof that animals are fresh.
You understand meaning in the concrete situation. Consider also the common ground (frames, scripts and similar schemes) – there is a Personal common ground (what you share with the people who can enter your ‘intimate’ space) Communal common ground (what is shared among people of a community). People have a knowledge of the activity type, i.e. the kind of activity people are engaged in. Language is used according to the activity type. Of course, culture can influence the types of activity performed. An activity can vary according to the culture… A lot of words can be understood in the context of the interaction, e.g.: at what time does it start? (in a movie theatre so. may ask so. else for it - it refers to the movie because the field is part of the common ground). ¬
E.g. there is a restaurant script. In East Asia the script can be di ff erent. In certain restaurants, animals are kept in cages at the entrance. You are the client, you point to the animal chosen and this is promptly killed in front of you. In Western game restaurants the game is never killed in front of you…
Meaning
Old context
I am in the phone book (today are not used today)
Meaning, context and culture Context can help you understand what you mean with your words: I am in the phone book [to understand this, you need information from an old context; then you must be able to understand ‘how’ you can be in the phone book – what ‘part’ of you can be there?] – both are related to culture (I suppose that the second piece of knowledge is part of a broader culture than the first) Now practice: She heard the piano what pieces of background knowledge (frames, scripts) are required here to understand this message? All of this is not expressed by words (she heard someone playing the piano, but who? The killer), you need previous knowledge. another case Another way to understand what is meant is the following: You can combine context information with the meaning expressed so you can «derive» further meaning. In this case, you make what is called an inference in conversation. You are able to read between the lines… You add meaning to the meaning expressed. Practice: Jane: How is John gettin’ on with his new job at the bank? Mary: Oh, quite well I think. He likes his colleagues, and he has not been in prison yet. You must derive some further meaning (add meaning), you combine meaning. Read between the lines—otherwise you dont find the real meaning of smth. Consider this example Jane: How is John gettin’ on with his new job at the bank? Mary: Oh, quite well I think. He likes his colleagues, and he has not been in prison yet. ¬ In fact, Mary is saying things in a strange way (using more di ffi cult words: her answer does not contribute to the purpose of the talk exchange in a meaningful way). She seems to be saying things that are a little bit obvious (she say something that is not much relevant). So Jane can assume that Mary is getting at somethin she does not like to say explicitly… (i.e. John «is the sort of person likely to yield to the temptation provided by his occupation»).
Mary has said smth in a strange way, missunderstandings can occour in all situation and
we need previous informatin (they depend on cultures)
Culture, information and non-verbal behaviour The way you write can be influenced culturally.
In cultures with a low information speed to be preferred are the headlines that can be processed less quickly but are more meaningful, e.g. “Despite concerns being expressed about his age and health, U.S. President Biden rules out resignation”. Space in communication Proxemics is related to a component of interpersonal communication that is strongly influenced by culture. It is space organization in interaction This component is part of a more general one i.e. how people organize space in houses and buildings even the layout of towns can be influenced by how people manage space in communication (life in towns is organized in less space than life in villages… living in a flat is not like living in a house and this can mean di ff erent ‘cultural’ views on space - di ff erent space availability is related to a di ff erent ‘cultural evaluation’ of space. Four ‘zones’ in your space can be distinguished Each distance between you and your interlocutors can be used to delimit the boundaries of a ‘zone’ i.e. how you measure space surrounding a person: The intimate zone The personal zone The social zone The public zone distances The intimate zone : the distance is between 0 and 45 cm; we can call it the intimate space. It is reserved for close friends, lovers, children and close family members. The personal zone : the distance is between 45 and 120 cm; it is the personal space. It is used for conversations with friends, to chat with associates, and in group discussions. The social space with a distance between 120 and 350 cm; this is the social space. It is reserved for strangers, newly formed groups, and new acquaintances. The public space and the distance is more than 350 cm. It is the public space. It is used for speeches, lectures, and theater; essentially, public distance is that range reserved for larger audiences Spaces and their use The intimate zone or the intimate space. It is reserved for close friends, lovers, children and close family members. The personal zone or the personal space. It is used for conversations with friends, to chat with associates, and in group discussions. The social zone or the social space. It is reserved for strangers, newly formed groups, and new acquaintances. The public zone or the public space is used for speeches, lectures, and theater; essentially, public distance is that range reserved for larger audiences On personal space Personal space is the region surrounding a person which they regard as psychologically theirs. ¬ Most people value their personal space and feel discomfort, anger, or anxiety when they feel their personal space is “invaded”. ¬
Permitting a person to enter personal space and entering somebody else’s personal space are indicators of perception of those people’s relationship.
On some Hall’s further ideas
Hall coined also the term “polychronic” to describe the ability to attend to multiple events simultaneously, as opposed to “monochronic” individuals and cultures who tend to handle events sequentially. According to him, even time can be understood in di ff erent ways according to culture. What in a culture counts as a short period of time may be seen as a very long time in another… All these elements are relevant in business communication, in negotiations, in discussions concerning agreements etc. That is why Hall did a lot of work as an advisor to U.S. diplomats in the 50es. Polychronic vs monochronic In cultures that tend to be monochronic it is more common (i.e. more likely to be accepted as normal) to do individual work steps one after the other. Keeping to a schedule is very important here; completing tasks is more important than maintaining personal relationships. In polychronic cultures, completing several tasks at the same time is more common. The schedule is a “can”, but not a “must”. People are more flexible and prioritize personal relationships; completing a task is of secondary importance when it comes to an encounter.
