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A BEGINNER’S GUIDE
To truly understand language, we cannot simply look at words in isolation. While a sentence like “I’m hungry” has a fixed grammatical structure (subject, verb, adjective), its actual meaning changes depending on the situation. For instance, if a young daughter says it to her father, it functions as a demand for food. If a friend says it to another friend, it might be an invitation to eat together, and if a student says it in class, it could be an excuse to leave. This leads us to the fundamental distinction between Text and Discourse: Text refers simply to the words used in a language event, whether they are spoken (conversations, speeches) or written (novels, menus). Discourse is a broader concept: it is the text plus the context in which it appears. Discourse Analysis , therefore, is defined as the "study of language in use." It requires us to look at the context—who is speaking to whom, where they are, and for what purpose—to understand what is being communicated. A fascinating aspect of discourse is that words mean what people want them to mean, a concept often linked to Humpty Dumpty’s logic in Alice in Wonderland. A clear example is the use of the word "cow". While literally a farm animal or a slur, in a friendly context between two people who know each other well, it can actually function as a sign of affection or social bonding, essentially meaning "we are friends." Ultimately, to analyze discourse effectively, we must consider both the co-text (the words surrounding a specific utterance) and the context (the real-world situation). Whether language is spoken or written, its meaning is always tied to the relationship between the participants and the specific circumstances of the interaction. The Concept of Cohesion The defining feature of a text is cohesion. This term refers to the various links that connect different parts of a message. A sentence like "We showed it to him yesterday" is grammatically correct but uninterpretable on its own because we don’t know who "him" is. For a word to become interpretable, it must refer to something else, called an antecedent or referent. Reference: Navigating the Text Reference is the most common way to create cohesion. Depending on where the information is located, we use different strategies:
- Endophoric Reference: This occurs when the information is found within the text (the co-text). o Anaphoric Reference: Looking back at something previously mentioned (e.g., "Vikram said... we showed it to him "). o Cataphoric Reference: Looking forward to information that follows. This is often used to engage the reader or create suspense (e.g., " Listen to this ..." or "They shoot the white girl first").
- Exophoric Reference: This refers to things outside the text , in the physical context. For example, if you point and say, "Look at that ," the listener must look at the real world, not the words, to understand. Personal Reference This involves pronouns like I, he, she, it, we, and they. It: It can refer back to a simple noun (the phone) or function as an Extended Text Reference, referring to an entire action or event (e.g., "He lost his phone. It [the act of losing it] was careless"). We: It is important to distinguish between inclusive we (including the listener) and exclusive we (excluding the listener). Demonstrative Reference These words (this, that, here, there, now, then, the) point to things based on their proximity to the speaker. This vs. That: This is selective and indicates something "near me," while that is more distal. The: This is a non-selective demonstrative. It identifies a specific thing but doesn't specify how close or far it is. The "That" Trap: Do not confuse the demonstrative that (which points) with the relative pronoun that (which joins sentences). Comparative Reference This links parts of a text by comparing qualities or quantities. Superlatives (e.g., "biggest") usually require looking at the context (e.g., the bowls you own).
Lexical Cohesion: The Meaning of Words This is perhaps the most fluid form of cohesion, as it relies on the content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) rather than grammar.
1. Collocation Words that tend to appear near each other are called collocations (e.g., farm and cow , or bad and breath ). We use our intuition to predict these "word partners." - Strong collocations: Words that almost always go together ( unusual circumstances vs. the less common weird circumstances ). - Collocational fields: Words related by a general theme, like sons and daughters. 2. Reiteration and Word Relations To keep a text "sticky," authors repeat ideas using different strategies: - Direct Repetition: Using the same word or different morphological forms ( run, ran, running ). - Synonymy: Using words with similar denotations (literal meaning) but different connotations (emotional feel), like child vs. kid. - Hyponymy (Superordination/Subordination): Categorizing words (e.g., vehicle is the superordinate , while car is the subordinate ). - Meronymy: Referring to parts of a whole (e.g., engine is a meronym of car ). Content Words vs. Function Words - Content Words (Open-class): Nouns, verbs, and adjectives. We constantly invent new ones (e.g., selfie, to friend ). They carry the primary "content." - Function Words (Closed-class): Articles, prepositions, and pronouns. We rarely add new ones. They provide the grammatical "skeleton" that allows references and substitutions to work. Study Tip: Remember that Cohesion is about the links visible in the text , while Coherence (which we will see later) is about the links we create in our minds using our knowledge of the world.
To analyze discourse, a linguist must distinguish between two types of links:
- Structural Cohesion: These are the grammatical links within a single sentence. For example, in the sentence "He had won the victory over himself," the link between the subject He and the pronoun himself is governed by internal sentence grammar.
- Non-structural Cohesion: These are the links that connect different sentences , turning them into a single semantic unit (a text). In the sequence "He had won the victory over himself. He loved Big Brother," there is no grammatical rule forcing the second "He" to exist, yet we recognize it refers to the same person. This is the "glue" of discourse. Spoken Language: The Spontaneous vs. Planned Continuum Historically, written language was seen as superior, but modern linguistics recognizes that spoken language is the primary site of linguistic innovation and social bonding. Spoken texts are categorized along a continuum :
- Planned Spoken Texts: These are prepared in advance, like political speeches, lectures, or news broadcasts. They often share features with formal writing.
- Spontaneous Spoken Texts: These are unplanned, like casual conversations or chance meetings.
- The Overlap: Most texts fall somewhere in between. A lecturer might use a plan (PowerPoint) but respond spontaneously to questions. Even writing can be spontaneous, such as text messages or quick notes. Conversation and Turn-Taking Conversation is a specific type of spoken interaction. According to the influential model by Sacks, Schegloff, and Jefferson (1974) , it is defined by:
- A small number of speakers.
- People talking one at a time.
- No set limit on topic, turn length, or number of turns. Turn Construction Units (TCUs) While written text is made of sentences, conversations are made of TCUs. These can be:
- Clauses: (e.g., "You want the book?")
- Phrases: (e.g., "The older edition?")
2. Text and Discourse - Text: The formal words, either written or spoken. - Context: The situation, the people involved, their clothes, gestures, and the physical setting. - Discourse: The "embracing term." Discourse = Text + Context. Discourse analysis involves "slowing down" communication to see how non-verbal cues (like pointing to a headphone or a sign) help us make sense of words that might otherwise seem "accountable" (odd or in need of explanation). 3. Coherence vs. Cohesion While Cohesion (Chapter 1) refers to the internal links between words, Coherence refers to the link between the text and the receiver’s ability to make sense of it. - Incoherence: When we hear words but cannot find a "sense" (e.g., someone talking in their sleep or someone with a heavy accent). - Negotiation of Coherence: The process where speakers clarify meaning (e.g., "No, I'm Ed" vs. "Ahmed"). 4. The Ideational Metafunction (Halliday) This tool helps us describe how language represents our ideas and experiences through Processes (verbs). There are six types: 1. Material: Processes of doing (kick, run, drive). 2. Mental: Processes of thinking/feeling (love, wonder, hear). 3. Verbal: Processes of saying (talk, shout, announce). 4. Relational: Processes of being (be, seem, appear). They relate a concept to an attribute (e.g., "Life is beautiful"). 5. Behavioural: Conscious but physiological actions (breathe, cough, listen, stare). 6. Existential: Pointing out that something exists (usually starts with "There is/are").
5. Schema (Schemata) We never say everything we mean; we leave out the "boring details." We rely on Schema : the mental picture or plan we have about how the world works. - Shortcuts: When I say, "I forgot my travel pass," I rely on your subway schema to understand that I need to pay, there is a gate, and I likely didn't take the train. - Cultural Specificity: A schema for a "restaurant" in the West (waitresses, checks) is different from a "restaurant" in Japan (vending machines, tickets). If the receiver doesn't share the same schema, the discourse becomes incoherent. 6. Note on Grammatical Mood Clauses generally function in one of three moods: - Declarative: Subject + Verb (e.g., " I saw her"). Used to indicate facts. - Interrogative: Verb + Subject (e.g., " Do you want ...?"). Used for questions. - Imperative: Starts with a Verb; no visible subject (e.g., "Ask me why"). Used as prompts or commands. 1. Propositional vs. Non-Propositional Meaning A key part of discourse analysis is identifying what a clause actually "claims" about the world. - Propositional Meaning (Declaratives): A proposition is a claim that can be proven true or false. Only declarative clauses have propositional meaning (e.g., "All children grow up" ). - Non-Propositional Meaning: Interrogatives (questions), imperatives (commands), and phrases cannot be true or false. They rely on context for their sense. o In Advertising: Advertisers love non-propositional meaning because it avoids specific claims that could lead to lawsuits. o Example: A label saying "Improved Taste" is an implicit comparison. It doesn't say how it's better or what it's better than. It leaves the consumer to fill in the positive sense. o Example: Words like "Swiss" or "Since 1860" on a watch ad aren't propositions, but they carry connotations of reliability and tradition.
Public Speech Medium (shared event) Low (one-to- many) High (shared values/nation) Summary of Key Terms
- Proposition: A statement that is either true or false (Declaratives only).
- Connotation: The emotional or cultural association of a word (e.g., "Swiss" = "reliable").
- Accountable: Linguistic behavior that seems "odd" and requires an explanation or "account."
- Metalanguage: Language used to talk about language (like the terms we are using now!). 1. Key Concepts of Variation
- Idiolect: An individual’s unique way of speaking. It is shaped by personal experiences, hobbies, and social circles.
- Dialect: Speech habits characteristic of a specific geographical area or social group. It includes variations in accent, grammar, and vocabulary.
- Accent: Refers strictly to variations in pronunciation and intonation.
- Variety: A general term for any recognizably similar way of speaking or writing. 2. Factors Influencing Variation Linguists distinguish between variation based on the User and the Use :
- Language User (Social Variables): Factors that are stable or change slowly, such as Age, Gender, Ethnicity, Class, and Geographical Origin. o Example: Darth Vader uses "I am your father" instead of "I'm your dad" to portray a cold, distant persona.
- Language Use (Register): How language changes based on the topic, purpose, and audience. 3. Phonological Variation This is the most noticeable type of variation in speech (but invisible in writing).
- Linguistic Variable: A linguistic unit that has more than one way of being realized (e.g., the tt in the middle of "batter").
- Linguistic Variant: The specific way a variable is realized in a given instance (e.g., pronouncing "batter" with a d sound vs. a t sound).
- Communicative vs. Social Function: o Communicative: The literal meaning of the word (e.g., "cake mixture"). o Social: The information the sound provides about the speaker (e.g., "I am American"). 4. Lexical Variation This refers to differences in word meaning over time or between different groups.
- Variation over Time: The word "gay" shifted from meaning "happy" (19th century/early 20th century) to "homosexual" (late 20th century).
- The S-Curve: Language changes typically start slowly, then gain rapid popularity (like the adoption of new technology), before finally becoming the standard.
- Geographical Lexical Variation: o British English: Pavement = sidewalk. o North American English: Pavement = the road surface itself. 5. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Linguistics One of the most important distinctions for a student of linguistics:
- Descriptive Linguistics: Aims to describe how people actually use language and why, without judging it as "right" or "wrong." (This is the approach of most modern linguists and dictionaries).
- Prescriptive Linguistics: Attempts to tell people how they should use language based on established rules. 6. Social Correlations (Class and Gender) Variation often correlates with social standing:
- Class: Research shows that working-class speakers are more likely to omit the h at the start of words (e.g., "ammer"), while middle-class speakers are more likely to realize it.
3. Language and Identity: Prestige Why do people keep speaking "non-standard" varieties if they are mocked? - Overt Prestige: Seeking status by using Standard English (e.g., in a job interview). - Covert Prestige: Choosing to use a local or "low-prestige" variety to show in- group loyalty and identity (e.g., using Singlish in Singapore or AAVE in the US). - Indexing: Using language to "point to" a social identity. o Direct Indexing: Words that explicitly state a category (e.g., "pensioner" indexes "old"). o Indirect Indexing: Features associated with a group (e.g., high-pitched voices indirectly indexing femininity). 4. The Interpersonal Metafunction: Mood and the Finite This tool describes how we use grammar to interact with others. The Mood of a clause is determined by the Subject and the Finite (the first word of the verb). Mood Structure Function Example Declarative Subject + Finite Providing information "You did read." Interrogative Finite + Subject Asking for information " Did you read?" Imperative No Subject/Finite Prompting action "Read the book!" The Role of the Finite The Finite provides three key pieces of information: 1. Tense: Past or Present. 2. Polarity: Positive or Negative (the presence of not ). 3. Modality: The use of modal verbs ( may, might, should, must ). a. Deontic Modality: Relates to obligation ("You should go"). b. Epistemic Modality: Relates to probability/truth ("He should be there by now"). 5. Stance: Expressing Attitude Stance is the writer's feeling or perspective. We modify it using:
- Modal Verbs: Using must or might to show certainty or doubt.
- Mood Adjuncts: Adverbs like obviously, always, perhaps that add "extra" meaning to the mood.
- Interpersonal Grammatical Metaphors: Using a whole clause like " I think ..." or " I believe ..." not to describe a mental process, but to act as a substitute for "probably." Register is language variation based on use. It is the "right language for the right situation."
- Contextual appropriateness: Calling a boss "Seannie" (diminutive) is a register error because it is too informal. Diminutives are typically reserved for children or pets to make them seem "endearing."
- Phatic Communication: Language used primarily for social purposes (e.g., "How are you?"), rather than to convey facts. 2. Active vs. Passive Voice The choice between active and passive voice is a major marker of register.
- Active Voice: The Subject is also the Agent (the doer). o Example: "I ate the apple." (Clear and dynamic).
- Passive Voice: The Subject is the Patient (the receiver of the action). o Example: "The apple was eaten by me." (Formal and impersonal).
- Agentless Passive: Used for obfuscation (hiding who did it) or when the agent is unknown. o Example: "Mistakes were made." (Avoids taking blame). 3. The Hallidayan Model: Field, Tenor, and Mode Linguists analyze register by looking at three specific variables. A change in any one of these changes the entire text. A. Field (The "What") The topic or subject matter of the discourse.
5. Genre Genre is defined by shared purpose. If register is the "color" of the language, genre is the "shape" of the overall text. - Genre Conventions: Typical features like the layout of a recipe (ingredients at the top) or the use of speech bubbles in comics. - Purposes of Genre: o Referring: Teaching (manuals). o Expressing: Emotions (reviews). o Regulating: Managing behavior (laws, signs). o Interacting: Maintaining bonds (small talk). o Playing: Humor (jokes). 6. Key Distinctions to Remember - Author vs. Writer: The Author is the authority/mind behind the content; the Writer is the person who physically produced the words (e.g., a speechwriter is the writer , but the politician is the author ). - Audience vs. Reader: The Audience is the "ideal" receiver the author had in mind; the Reader is anyone who happens to see the text. - Slang vs. Informal: Slang is group-specific and changes fast; informal words are stable and known to almost everyone. 1. The Textual Metafunction: Theme and Rheme The Textual Metafunction is the language's ability to organize a message so it links clearly to what came before. To analyze this, we use two terms: - Theme: The first linguistic element of a clause. It is the "point of departure"— usually containing "old" or "given" information that connects to the previous sentence. - Rheme: Everything else in the clause. This is where the new information is presented.
Thematic Patterns
- The Fan Pattern: The same Theme is repeated in several clauses (e.g., "I came. I saw. I conquered" ). This creates a strong, memorable focus on the subject.
- The Zig-Zag Pattern: The Rheme (new info) of one sentence becomes the Theme (old info) of the next (e.g., "I'm from Ottawa. Ottawa is the capital..." ). This creates a logical "flow." Marked vs. Unmarked Themes
- Unmarked Theme: The most common or "normal" choice. In a declarative sentence, the Subject is the unmarked theme (e.g., " Dogs look up to us ").
- Marked Theme: An unusual choice used to highlight something specific, such as time or transition (e.g., " Last night , I dreamt... "). 2. Types of Themes
- Topical Theme: Relates to the main "topic" or content (usually the first participant, process, or circumstance).
- Textual Theme: Connects the clause to the text (e.g., conjunctions like but, then, however ).
- Interpersonal Theme: Shows the relationship between participants (e.g., vocatives like " Children , open your books" or the finite in a question). 3. Discourse Markers Discourse markers are "detachable" words (like oh, well, so, actually ) that signal how we should interpret the message. They serve four main functions:
- Referential: Show a relationship between ideas (e.g., but, so, because ).
- Interpersonal: Indicate the speaker’s attitude (e.g., obviously, to be honest ). Using " you know " can be a polite way to assume shared knowledge rather than "lecturing" the listener.
- Structural: Organize the text (e.g., okay, first, finally ). " Okay " often signals the start of a new topic.
- Cognitive: Reveal the speaker's thinking process (e.g., " well " signals a response is being decided; " like " can indicate a focus or a quote).
