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Political Sociology?
Political sociology is a division of the social sciences that focuses on political groups and leadership within society. More generally, it is the study of the relationship between politics and society. While there is debate as to the precise nature of the discipline’s proper focus, most experts agree that the idea of power — i.e., who holds, wields, achieves, and seeks power, particularly within the state and/or civil society — is a fundamental concern of political sociology. The relationship between the state and civil society is often seen as a key point of study because of the constant interplay and power struggle between the two groups. In general, the concept of the state takes the form of government and centralized power, most often denoted by its militarized and legislative authority, while civil society often refers to organizations such as businesses, churches, and unions. Also of consideration is the role of the individual and the concept and interplay of power between the state and civil society. The principal theories within political sociology include social class theory, elite theory, and pluralism. Social class theory is often associated with Marxist theory, in which power is examined in terms of which societal class controls the prevailing means of economic production. Elite theory is a theory in which power is viewed as being concentrated in elite groups and societies. In pluralism, power is seen to be spread and shared throughout society and institutions. The term political sociology first appeared in print in 1905 in a book review of Alleyne Ireland's "The Far Eastern Tropics." Its roots stretch into the nineteenth century, however, where its founders are generally recognized to be Moisey Ostrogorsky and Max Weber. Ostrogorsky was a Belorussian political scientist and sociologist renowned for his theories on party systems and political parties. Weber was a German historian , sociologist, and political economist known for his influence on social theory. In addition, because of his intensive investigations into socioeconomic systems and class struggles, Karl Marx is often linked to political sociology particularly in terms of his theory of economic determinism. Political sociology as a field of study in the United States peaked in the 1960s and 1970s. Today, concentrations in sociology tend toward the study of minorities, sex, and gender.
Sociology Of The Family
Sociology of the family examines the family as an institution and a unit of socialization through various sociological perspectives. The sociology of the family is a common component on introductory and pre-university academic curricula, as it is perhaps the simplest institution to which one may apply many fundamental sociological approaches.
Family And Culture
Within the study of the family, one area that sociologists examine is the cultural factors that shape family structures and family processes. For example, how gender, age, sex, race, and ethnicity influence different family structures and the practices within each family. They also look at the demographic characteristics of family members across and within cultures and they have changed over time.
Relationship Preferences
Another area studied under the sociology of the family is relationships. This includes the stages of coupling (courtship, cohabitation, engagement, and marriage), relationships between husbands and wives through time, and parenting. The topic of parenting is a large one and includes things such as the socialization of children, the father role, the mother role, single parenting, adoption and foster parenting, and the son/daughter role.
Alternative Family Forms
Alternative family forms and singlehood are other topics examined under the sociology of the family. For example, many sociologists study the roles and influence of family members beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, godparents, and surrogate kin. Marital disunions are also studied, particularly as divorce rates have risen over the past several decades.
Family Systems And Other Institutions
Sociologists who study the family also look at how other institutions affect and are affected by family systems. For instance, how is the family affected by religion and how is religion influence by the family? Likewise, how is the family affected by work, education, politics, mass media, etc. and how are each of these institutions affected by the family?
Sociology of deviance is the area of sociology that studies the violation of social norms or expectations, and researchers studying it will often use social or interpersonal methods of obtaining data. Among the large variety of theories concerning the source and sociology of deviance, class conflict theory, stemming from Karl Marx, is among the foundational and influential theories of the sociology of deviance. Emile Durkheim, on the other hand, based her theory of social deviance on communal cohesion, especially as it relates to pre- and post-industrial societies, and this relates to Kai Erikson's theory of boundary maintenance, in which he asserts that the sociology of deviance is centered around constructing boundaries to keep a community intact. Robert Merton's strain theory is also particularly influential, in which he asserts that deviance is a method of coping with social expectations.
Despite the many theories of the sociology of deviance, most hold that the actions that are considered deviant are relative to each specific society. Similar actions may be given different labels in different time periods and cultures, and even within one culture, social responses can change over time and can be affected by historical events. Theories of social deviance tend to try to develop a model that will explain consistent patterns of deviant behavior throughout different cultures.
Those who research social deviance will often focus on small- and large-scale views of a community. They may interview a small group of individuals personally or perform a survey via many institutions. They may also perform participant observation, in which they spend time in the community they wish to study to gain first-hand knowledge of the social interactions that take place there.
Marx bases all his theory, fundamentally, on class conflict: usually, the more powerful bourgeoisie will pursue its own interests against the proletariat. According to Marx, the criminal justice system, and therefore the laws that define deviant or criminal behavior, exists primarily to protect the upper class and its interests. In addition, a capitalist society will necessarily worsen this division and create deviance because technology will gradually lead to more efficient means of production: those who can keep up with it become economically powerful, while those who cannot are pushed to the edges.
Durkheim held that every society had a collective consciousness of agreed-upon values, and deviance is a normal consequence of a society setting boundaries for itself. In simplistic, pre- industrial societies, social cohesion is greater, but in post-industrial cities, there is more differentiation. As a result, there is more debate regarding deviant behavior, and some behaviors may be considered deviant by some groups while others are not.
Erikson studied the Puritans and the Salem witch trials and developed a theory related to Durkheim's: that a community stays intact by limiting itself to a particular range of activities. Any activities that fall outside this range are condemned as deviant. Each time the community calls individuals to account for this behavior, it is reaffirming those boundaries, but other factors can cause deviant individuals to gain power and shift the boundaries.
Merton's strain theory deals with the different ways people cope with social expectations, and deviant behavior is just part of the different methods. He outlines a major value that society upholds, such as love of money, as well as the ways of achieving it that are labeled as proper. Some, according to Merton, will conform and reach that goal, obtaining monetary success. Innovators will use deviant means of reaching the same goal, whereas ritualists will try to conform, but will not be successful. Rebels are truly deviant in rejecting both the lifestyle and the goal.
Social Psychology
S ocial psychology is a branch of psychology which examines the impact of social influences on human behavior. This field is vast, encompassing a wide range of fields of study and several disciplines. Social psychology is also used in a range of disciplines and industries; many people utilize the principles of social psychology without even being aware of it when they try to control a group, influence someone's opinion, or explain why someone behaves in a particular way.
The roots of social psychology were laid in the late 1800s, when psychology as a discipline was thriving in Europe. As the First World War drove many psychologists to the United States, social psychology began to arise as a distinct discipline in the 1920s. One of the major influences on the field was Kurt Lewin, who is called the “father” of social psychology by some people; other famous social psychologists include Zimbardo, Asch, Milgram, Festinger, Ross, and Mischel.
A social psychologist looks at the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of both individuals and groups. The field also examines interpersonal interaction, analyzing the way in which someone interacts with other people, whether on a singular basis or in the form of a large group. Social psychology also examines cultural influences like advertisements, books, films, television, and radio, looking at the ways in which these influences impact human behavior.
Like many scientists, social psychologists like to use empirical methods to conduct studies in their fields. These methods often involve experiments which can bring up complex ethical issues. One of the most infamous social psychology experiments was the Stanford Prison Experiment, which was ultimately shut down because it got out of control. Social psychologists rely on the efforts of ethics committees and review panels to ensure that their work is ethically allowable, in the hopes of avoiding a repeat of questionable experiments.
The study of social psychology can explain why people form mobs, how groups make decisions, which social conditions can lead to aberrant behavior, and a wide range of other things. Social psychologists are constantly learning more about human behavior and the science behind human interactions, looking at everything from why people fail to help people in need to what leads people to conform, even in ethically dubious situations.
If you want to learn more about this field of psychology, you may be able to take an introductory course at a local college in your area. You can also consult your library for a number of published texts on the subject, but beware; once you start studying social psych, it can be hard to stop!
What Is Social Research?
Social research is the scientific study of society. More specifically, social research
