Intercultural Communication: Understanding Cultural Dimensions and Leadership Styles, Appunti di Comunicazione Interculturale

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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

(1) CULTURE IN BUSINESS CONTEXTS

INTRODUCTION

A CULTURAL FAUX PAS

Shakegate = Microsoft founder Bill Gates met with South Korean President Park Geun-hye Monday. He offended South Korea with handshake, because when shaking her hand, he kept his left hand in his pocket. According to Korean media, this gesture is disrespectful because he was not treating the President with the respect she was supposed to be given. Therefore, in Korean culture, this behaviour is used with friends or someone younger. In addition, the other hand in the pocket symbolizes superiority and can be potentially rude when done in the wrong context or situation. It is important to highlight that South Korea is a hierarchical culture.

What should he have done?

He should be prepared and adopted a multicultural perspective = see things from multiple angles with regard to cultural differences. He should have abandoned the monocultural perspective. WHOSE RULES?

What is also important is to keep in mind that in a culture – in this case, in the

Korean culture – there are age-old traditions founded in Confucian practices that

require one to respect the rank and order of relationships and then to maintain such an order.

However, the Bill Gates scenario begs the question: Who should adapt to who?

There are different opinions:

1. You can’t expect a Western person to follow a Confucian culture’s rules

nor be judged by its cultural standards = throughout this sentence, it

means that the behaviour of Bill Gates is excusable.

WHY IS CULTURE IMPORTANT IN BUSINESS?

GLOBALIZATION AND BUSINESS

Globalization is defined in two ways:

• Technical definition = the increasing interdependence among national governments, businesses, non-profit organizations, and individual citizen.
• Business definition = technology, communications, trade, tariffs, migration, and labour markets are open across borders, so that free trade and capital flow unhindered by national boundaries. Drivers facilitating globalization:
• free movement of goods, services, knowledge, and communication across national boundaries
• development of new technologies (high-speed internet, air travel)
• lowering of tariffs for travel and other obstacles to such movement
• human migration, especially from undeveloped to developed countries GLOBALIZATION AND SOCIETY In the 21st^ century, we live in a multicultural world = everyday, at work, in our neighbourhoods we deal with people of different nationalities, ethnicities and faith. One of the causes is the migration = this phenomenon continues to surge as people are dispersed, seeking a better life because of economic, religious, or political reasons. Many migrants come

from Mexico, Syria (es. some

families flee because of harsh

government and terrorism), sub-

Saharan Africa. Many of them move to EU and Asia. This is due to strict foreign politics rules, for instance, US traditionally does not welcome migrants, while EU is more opened to accept them. This surge of international came between 1990 and 2013.

Impact of Globalization on Society:

• Multiculturalism = so governments have to find solutions in other to guarantee a peaceful coexistence.
• Interdependence of global trade and commerce
• Multiple cuisines introduced
• Multiple languages spoken GLOBALIZATION AND LANGUAGE

Can one language serve everyone’s needs?

Across the business world, companies are incorporating global development programs which include the skill to speak more than one or two languages as a necessity to function successfully. Currently, English is a dominant language and will continue to be the language of investment and commerce, although it will not be spoken by the majority of people. Indeed, more people speak Mandarin Chinese.

Another example, in California many children are bilingual ( they speak Spanish

and English), because they are raised in that way at school. On the other hand,

in Europe, the most spoken language is Russian, followed by German. The global Village = is more than the superficial interaction of a tourist on vacation. It is the current-day reality of savvy business professionals, community leaders, and people next door who interact each day with people from all over the world and from a variety of ethnicities and backgrounds.

attitudes. Understanding what is below the water line helps us to begin to decode the why behind the what. CULTURAL METAPHORS SIGNIFICANCE Metaphors are powerful meaning-making devices and there has been a significant amount of scientific research dedicated to understanding them. We use metaphors more than we realize in our everyday life. Such metaphors are conceptual devices that aid us in transferring abstract ideas into concrete understandings. We are told that:

• Metaphors structure thinking.
• Metaphors structure knowledge
• Metaphors are central to abstract language.
• Metaphors are grounded in physical experience. Therefore, metaphors help to conceptualize our experience. Consequently, concept structure how we perceive and relate to everyday life. HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION UNDERSTANDING THE FIELD OF MANAGEMENT’S ‘‘FOUR LEGS’’ Edward T. Hall = An anthropologist who lived in the multicultural New Mexico was the founder of intercultural communication. He dedicated himself to decode what he coined as the ‘‘hidden dimensions of culture’’. After the World War II, he worked for the State Department and trained Foreign Service officers en route to underdeveloped countries. Hall’s main teaching about how different people

groups view time, space, and relationships. He wrote a famous book: The silent

language (1959) and today the Foreign Service Institute requires his readings for

all recruits. What does “intercultural communication” mean? = it is the communication between different people who belong to different cultures. It is about how we use our collective or individual efforts; how we use power; how we interpret time and nature; how we interpret cultural identity; how our world views affect

perceptions; how we persuade, negotiate, and deal with conflict. The common denominator of culture is the human condition—the variable is the mindset—or frame of reference of the individual or group of people. In business, when we interact with and manage people, we are employing four fields which are called: fields of management:

1. Anthropology: is about the study of human nature—both past and present— and it builds on knowledge from the social, biological, and physical sciences.
2. Sociology: examines social behaviour that enlightens us about how people act and change within society over time.
3. Psychology: involves the study of mental functions and behaviours.
4. Communication: studies provide insight into the processes of human communication. Think of the field of management as being the seat of a chair and the four legs (notice the metaphor used here) are these four streams of inquiry that support it. DEFINING ‘‘INTERCULTURAL,’’ ‘‘CROSS - CULTURAL,’’ AND ‘‘INTERNATIONAL’’ The three terms “intercultural”, “cross cultural” and “international” are not interchangeable, but they differ and mean: ➢ Intercultural communication = is the communication exchange between people who are different culturally—it examines how the specific cultural

differences affect the interactions of the people engaged. For example, if

you are from Switzerland and your colleague is from Singapore, the

interaction would be intercultural because the communication strategies

each person uses are different based upon their cultural background. The

focus is on the individual as the unit of analysis. ➢ Cross-cultural communication = the comparison of their differences across culture. So, if we look at our communicators from Switzerland and Singapore, and compare their communication patterns, we would be talking about a cross-cultural comparison. The study of cross-cultural communication comes from anthropology and is usually comparative in nature. ➢ International communication = also involves the interaction of people from differing cultures, but it is focused on macro issues, such as governmental or political influences that affect the communication processes as people interact with each other in each respective country. For example, what is the government’s influence on the process of people communicating from Switzerland and Singapore? International communication is about the power, politics, and processes of one nation influencing another. This form

The causes of this failure: ➢ Germany is the most price-conscious country; therefore, low-cost prices were considered ‘predatory’ by German High court, for instance: non-fair price policy on basic goods such as milk and butter.

➢ A very ‘non-German’ anti-union policy = employees do not participate in

management decisions. Additionally, the corporation do nothing to keep

its employees happy and motivated.

➢ Germany’s highly restricted work week and regulated store opening hours did not allow Wal-Mart to operate 24/7. ➢ There was a cultural clash because tried to use the same ‘Walmart approach’ as in North American such as

▪ greeters at the door = Germans find smiles artificial in such context and

some shoppers interpreted this smiling to be flirting.

▪ employees had to smile and participate in Wal-Mart cheers (it is more

than just a catchy slogan or fun way to start the day – it’s a key part of

the company’s history and culture) and in U.S this is useful to enforce

the team spirit.

▪ Application of the Ten Foot Rule = if a customer comes within 10 feet

of them, the sales associate must approach the customer and ask if

they need any assistance; anyway, Germans usually don’t need help in

such context.

➢ Walmart formally discouraged interoffice romances ➢ Of the four CEOs appointed during the first four years of operations, two were unwilling to learn German and instead mandated English as the corporation’s official management language ➢ Wal-Mart underestimated the importance of location since Germans tend to make more frequent and smaller shopping trips= Wal-Mart stores were located on the outskirts of town, therefore, German customers found them not convenient and bought the same products for similar prices at locations that were much more convenient. ➢ Wal-Mart forced employees to relocate to keep their job, but Germans are not Americans, so many of German employees quit their job. ➢ Wal-Mart did not understand that unions and companies are strictly connected.

In light of the above, Wal-Mart’s failure in Germany was due to its cultural insensitivity. It did not do its research on the tradition and cultural retail shopping in Germany before entering the market. However, cultural differences are very important.

Main Attributes of Emotional Intelligence (EQ):

• Self- and other awareness = the ability to: ▪ Know how you are feeling and how those around you are feeling ▪ Know how your emotions might be affecting others ▪ Pay attention to how others influence your emotions
• Self-regulation = The ability to: ▪ control one your emotions and actions under pressure and think before acting ▪ Suspend judgment ▪ Predict how someone might react and therefore manage what to say/do
• Relationship management = The ability to: ▪ Get along well with others ▪ Handle conflict efficiently ▪ Express ideas and information clearly ▪ Using sensitivity to another person’s feelings (empathy) to manage interactions successfully

Example >> you are a team leader. You should listen to your team and find out

what is important to them. If in our team, someone is facing challenging

circumstances, you address them while keeping your own emotions in check.

You can manage conflicts, trying to get well with other and express ideas in a

clear way, and you should be empathic to manage interactions successfully.

CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE (CQ)

Cultural intelligence = Christopher P. Earley (the creator) claims that a person’s ability to function skilfully in a cultural context different than one’s own. To be more precise, a person with high cultural intelligence is:

• emphatic
• work well with others
• acknowledge differing values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours There are four strategies:

1. CQ Drive/ Motivation = your level of interest, motivation, confidence to persevere cross culturally. In other words, the curiosity of different cultures.

2. CQ

Knowledge = it is what you know about other cultures. For instance, it is smth that you learn from newspaper, or from studying the world history at school.

3. CQ Strategy = your capability to apply your drive and knowledge to develop an appropriate and effective strategy.
4. CQ Behaviour = the ability to use both verbal and nonverbal behaviour. You learn them when you interact with people, who have different cultures. Throughout the experience, you are able to choose the most appropriate behaviour based upon the experience and context. EXAMPLE OF THE MODEL OF CULTURAL INTELLEGENCE Imagine that you are a business person and you are ready to close a deal with your counterpart who comes from Qatar. You suggest him to meet the following day, together with your lawyers. However, the following day your counterpart never shows up. If you are a culturally intelligent person, you don’t react negatively and you would suspend judgement. But you would reflect carefully and reflect on your strategies based upon your experience and try to understand the other’s perspective not only on what happened, also on why this is happened. Perhaps, on Western perspective, finalizing an agreement with lawyers is a successful thing, while for a non-Western person could be a sign of distrust. There is a model of CQ which consists of: knowledge, mindfulness and competence

• Knowledge= means that it is better to know something about the specific region in which you are interacting. In addition, you should inform yourself

4. Unconscious competence= With constant practice and mindfulness, it become natural to us. It is important to overcome this unconscious bias through these ways: ➢ understand our hidden bias and deal with the human tendency towards ethnocentrism ➢ develop Cultural Intelligence (CQ) to break away from such bias ▪ knowledge, mindfulness, and competence

CASE 2: APPROPRIATING THE SAMOAN CULTURE

The original name of Nike was Blue Ribbon Sports (BRS) and was founded by track athlete Philip Knight and his coach Bill Bowerman in January 1964. At the beginning the company worked for a Japanese shoemaker. Two years later, BRS opened its first retail store, located in Santa Monica, California. Furthermore, Blue Ribbon Sports gradually increased sales volumes and its relationship with Onitsuka Tiger was deteriorating more and more and ended about 1971. As a result, the company changed its name into Nike, inspired by the Greek mythology, precisely to the Greek goddess of victory. Then Jeff Johnson developed the swoosh logo. Nike was important because it revolutionized the athletic industry with its products. Then, Nike decided to introduce a brand endorser (sostenitore) such as Steve Prefontaine. Then, Nike introduce successful marketing campaigns, by using different advertisement channels such as Internet, public relations and events. NIKE’S PAST ISSUES Nike has committed different cultural gaffes in the past, offending some segments of the global population. ➢ For instance, in June 2011, Nike released the T-shirt with phrase ‘DOPE’ and on the background there are skateboards and snowboards. This is clearly a promotion of drugs. Nike continued to sell it during the campaign. ➢ SB Dunk Low Black and Tan sneakers refer to a darker beer. But the name ‘Black and Tan’ has an historical negative connotation. Indeed, it refers to British military group that was sent to Ireland to quell Irish rebellion, causing the death of many civilians. Nowadays ‘Black and Tan’ is considered an offense like ‘Nazi’ or ‘Taliban’. Nike apologized, but the name and shoes were not pulled from the stock. ➢ ‘Gold Digging’ T-shirt designed for women to promote 46 medals won by U.S women. However, the expression ‘gold digging’ refers to women who date wealthy men only for their money. Nike has never apologized.

THE SOURCE OF THE PROBLEM

2013 = Nike’s company launched Pro Tattoo Tech Tights leggings. Similarity of the leggings’ patterns to the pe'a, the traditional male tattoo of Samoa. This is a faux pas of the company. This is an Outrage of Samoans, Māori as well as many other indigenous communities around the globe WHAT IS THE PE’A? The handmade tattoo is made with bone/woods and other natural materials, The tattoo covers the male body (from waist to knees). This is a rite of passage and a symbol of courage. During the ceremony family members of the person getting the tattoo attend it to provide support during the long and painful process. Therefore, it is not something entered into lightly. In addition to that, the tattoo is made with black ink. The design is symmetrical and comprises straight lines and larger block.

Women have another version which is called malu.

In light of the above, this pe’a tattoo have an ancient spiritual meaning. Nike launched these leggings and, members of the Indigenous Peoples of the Pacific’s identity and culture offended because:

• something sacred has been turned into something to be bought and sold
• their sacred tattoos are now on women’s clothing because it used it on the clothing line designed for women.

Who is at stake? (chi è coinvolto?)

• athletes around the world, Nike costumers supporting and potentially being sponsored by a company that is so grossly insensitive to other cultures
• Investors (Nike stock, and the company in in this case stakeholders included members of the Indigenous People of the Pacific
• Nike affiliates and distributors

(3) CULTURE AND IDENTITY

INTRODUCTION

COCA-COLA COMMERCIALS

Coca-Cola’s advertisement = it was a multicultural mix of people and they sing “America the Beautiful” in different languages. Why did this advertisement offend some people? → This advertisement unifies diversity. It treats all of us equal. For this reason, this type of advertisement offends some people. Each individual consists as a unique identity which consists of personal experience and social and cultural experience too.

INDIVIDUAL IDENTITY (OUR OWN IDENTITY)

No matter who we are or where we have grown up, we all have our own/individual identity which consists of: ➔ personal ➔ Social and cultural identity We develop our identity first through our family: from whom, we learn about values, expectations for behaviour and norms for communication. Then, we go out and meet new people both at school and at work. Here, we find many other

influences and experiences. Therefore, the phrase “ I don’t have any culture, I

just grew up in the Midwestern United States” is wrong. According to a Russian

psychologist Vygotsky, he declares that people shape their identity within the social context, and this includes culture and its influence on how we learn the rules and standards for interaction.

ENCULTURATION AND ACCULTURATION

➢ Enculturation = it is a life-long process within our country of origin, this happens strong especially during our formative years. We develop our identity first through our family: from whom, we learn about values, expectations for behaviour and norms for communication. ➢ Acculturation = It is the process of learning to adapt to a new environment and set of normative standards when exposed to another culture.

Example: Referring to Coca-Cola commercial advertisement, a young

woman who comes from South East Asia is encultured through her culture

in India, she learns norms, values and expectations for behaviour and so

on. Then, she moves away and she goes to U.S.A. Here, she experienced

the process of acculturation, in which she learns what is accepted and

expected in the USA.

SALIENCE IN CULTURAL AND SOCIAL IDENTITY.

As it mentioned before, our identities, which are about our sense of self consist of: ➔ Personal = it includes our unique qualities and characteristics. We can call them core values, and they are: attitude, beliefs and values. They are related to our sense of self and are non-negotiable. They provide us stability. For instance, our religious and philosophical beliefs guide our behaviour. However, they can change during the time, but their basic premise anchors us and provides stability. ➔ Social = many aspects of socialization that influence us and shape us and these aspects are negotiable. ▪ Cultural or Ethnic Identities = aspects of a group’s cultural background

• belonging to the same ethnic category. ▪ Language Identities = languages are a way in which we can see the world, if we speak several languages, we see different perspective of the world. Moreover, it is one major criterion for ethnic group membership.