Scarica Functional Grammar: Analyzing Clauses and Their Combinations e più Appunti in PDF di Linguistica Inglese solo su Docsity!
Unit 1
Here we are going to study systemic functional linguistics functional grammar
- Focused on contextual meaning, language in use - Functional and descriptive - ‘’descriptive grammar based on empirical research, not a prescriptive one (what you can, or you can’t say), including rules for correcting what are often referred to as grammatical errors. A functional grammar is not a grammar of etiquette or linguistic table manner’’ We are going to analyze the text, broke into CLAUSES. Remember:
- A text is not necessarily written (can be written or spoken)
- A text is not defined by its length, some texts are very long, while others may be made up of just one word
- The text is an instance of language having meaning in its context Why are we studying this?
- Because it is an empowering approach it can help us understand how a language functions
- Because it is an appliable approach because we use it to talk about real world problems and issues, for instance it is used in discourse analysis, critical analysis of media, social media, politics, advertising
- The context is so important, language takes place in context. The meanings we convey while using language are strictly linked to both the cultural and the situational context in which language is used
Unit 2
In our analyses we will use ‘’clause’’ instead of sentence. Sentence is a unit of writing that goes from a capital letter to an end with a full stop Clause is a unit of grammatical analysis, some clauses are also sentences at the same time, but not all of them!! One sentence can be made up of more than one clause
Structural labels: the rank scale
Ex. ‘’while we have faced challenges before, this one is different: we join with all nations in a common endeavour’’ clauses (1) While we have faced challenges before, (2) this one is different: (3) we join with all nations in a common endeavour Groups and phrases (while) we – have faced – challenges – before – this one – is – different: - we- join – with all nations – in a common endeavour (While is neither a group or a phrase, but a conjunction) Words While – we - have – forced – challenges – before – this – one – is – different – we – join – with – all – nations – in – a – common - endeavour morphemes While we have fac ed challenge s before, this one is different:
we join with all nation s in a common endeavour Noun groups ( NG ), verb groups ( VG ), adverbial groups ( AG ), prepositional phrases ( PP ) We / challenges / different NGs Have faced / is VGs Before AG With all nations, in a common endeavourPPs Groups, like clauses, may form complexes ‘’if all the world was apple pie, and all the sea was ink, and all the trees were bread and cheese what would we have to drink?’’ 4 clausesone clause complex (and also one sentence) Bread+and+cheese 2 nouns one NG complex
Analysis of a NG: pre-modification
Deictic to indicate/ tell us which things are being referred to, and whether it is a specific thing or a non- specific thing MY queen, THE queen, A queen Numerative quantity/ how many things ONE queen, TWO queens Epithet qualities/ give us descriptive qualities of the thing or things the TERRIBLE queen Classifier what kind or class of thing/ noun /adjective a MOVIE queen In this case ‘’Queen’’ Is the ‘’THING’’ (subject) Epithet vs classifier = a COLOURFUL hat vs the SORTING hat
Analysis of a NG: post-modification - qualifier
Embedding a unit is expanded by the inclusion of another unit from a higher or the same rank in the rank scale Ex. Much [of cdontinental Europe] is hardening its attitude [to Brexit]. [ Embedded PP] Ex. Harry had never believed he would meet a boy [[he hated more than Dudley]], but that was before he met Draco Malfoy. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. [[ Embedded clause]] Notice that you cannot move an embedded element away from its NG (to another position in the clause) Difference between EMBEDDED PP (qualifier) and NON-EMBEDDED PP That dog with the black tail belongs to my uncle. Vs. there was a stone in my boot Non lo puoi spostare, ma cambia significato, da nuove informazioni riguardo al soggetto vs. non specifica qualcosa del soggetto, aggiunge info Examples of embedding (PPs and clauses) from the Queen’s speech And those [[who come after us]] will say the Britons [of this generation] were as strong as any. The moments [[when the United Kingdom has come together to applaud its care and essential workers]] will be remembered as an expression [ of our national spirit]; and its symbol will be the rainbows [[(that were) drawn by children]]. Unit 3 The three SIMULTANEOUS views of the clause Field What’s going on? Clause as representation Systems: TRANSITIVITY, CLAUSES IN COMBINATION
Transitivity includes a set of resources for referring to entities in the world and ways in which those entities act on or relate to each other. It includes:
1. A Process (verbal groups) 6 categories, each with its own Participant roles.
- Typically, one or more Participants in the process (nominal groups), that is the person or thing connected to the process
- Often, one or more Circumstances , which provide additional information about the event (prepositional phrase, adverbial groups, also nominal groups)
Material process
Physical process of doing/ creating/ changing/ happening The main participants in a material clause are:
- The ACTOR is not always the subject of the clausethe doer of the process, it may be animate or inanimate, human or notactive
- Often, but not necessarily, a GOAL an entity (human being, animal, object) that undergoes the processpassive
- Conjunctions have no function in transitivity The sun rose on the same tidy front gardens Acto r Material Process Circumstance and (the sun) lit up the brass number four on the Dursley’s front door Actor Material Process Goal Circumstance
Mental process
It express thoughts, feelings, desires, perceptions... they typically have only animate participants as DOERS. They can project other clauses. The main participants in mental clause are:
- The SENSER the human or human-like participant who THINKS, FEELS, WANTS, SEES, HEARS…
- Often but not necessarily, a PHENOMENON the entity that is ‘’sensed’’ (He) tried to remember the dream [[he had been having]] Sense r Mental Process Phenomenon
Relational process
It express states of being and having. They can be either attributive (they assign an attribute, a generic quality to an entity) or identifying (they assign an identity to an entity) The participants in an attributive relational process are the Carrier and the Attribute. In an identifying relational process, they are called Identified and Identifier. but Dudley Dursley was no longer a baby Carrier Relational Process Attribute Risponde alla domanda how?---------------------------------- Dudley Dursley was Harry’s only cousin Identified Relational Process Identifier Risponde alla domanda who? ----------------------------------------------------------- He had a funny feeling Carrier Relational Process Attribute
Verbal process
It expresses what is said. Like mental process, they can project other clauses. The main participants in a verbal clause are:
- The Sayer the human or human-like entity that carries out the process
- The Receiver the addressee There may be other participants as well. However, not all of them are necessarily construed (to construe to give linguistic form to something) in the lexico-grammatical structure of the clause. «Get up!» she screeched Projected clause Sayer verbal Process
Behavioural process
They are in-between material and mental. They indicate involuntary psychological and physiological activity, like (cry, cough, sneeze, smile. They typically have only one participant the Behaver Harry groaned Behaver Behavioural Process
Existential process
It expresses existence and typically take the form ‘’THERE’’ + verb TO BE. There is only one participant: the Existent (the entity, person, thing, that is said to exist) The element ‘’there’’ has no function in transitivity.
There had been a flying
motorcycle
in it
Elaboration one clause elaborates on the meaning of another by specifying or describing it. The secondary clause does not introduce a new element into the picture but rather provides a further characterization of one that is already there, restating it, clarifying it etc. Paratactic elaboration the elaborating clause may be introduced by ‘for example’, ‘for instance’… paratactic elaboration functions to provide an explanation/exposition or a clarification. Ø «I do what I can to make the word a happier place: for example, I had my coffee today» Hypotactic elaboration the elaborating clause is a non- defining relative clause, either finite or non-finite. It provides a description of one of the elements we find in the main clause, quando è scritto tra le virgole per specificare quanto detto Ø Example with a FINITE, non-defining relative clause: «Half an hour later, Harry, who couldn’t believe his luck, was sitting in the back of the Dursleys’ car on the way to the zoo for the first time in his life» Ø Example with a NON-FINITE, non-defining relative clause: «Harry, still staring at his letter, went back to the kitchen» Difference between defining and non-defining relative clause Defining is embedded and functions as Post-Modifier (qualifier) in the NG Non-defining does not provide fundamental info about the NG, they are usually preceded by a comma or inserted into commas, they function as an instance of hypotactic elaboration. 3 Enhancement, provides circumstatial information cioè è successa una cosa e quindi si danno una serie di motivi per cui è successo e per spiegarlo, fa riferimento al tempo, il luogo, la circostanza, il motivo.. In enhancement one clause enhances the meaning of another by qualifying it in one of a number of possible ways: by reference to time, place, manner, cause or condition. Circumstantial information involved, similar to the circumstance of transitivity, but this time expressed in/by a different clause. Paratactic enhancement the enhancing clause may be introduced by different kinds of paratactic connectors expressing circumstantial information (when, why, how etc.), such as ‘so’, ‘(and) then’, ‘still’… Ø «Down, down, down: there was nothing else to do, so Alice soon began talking again» Ø «Alice did not quite know what to say to this: so she helped herself to some tea and bread-and- butter, and then turned to the Dormouse, and repeated her question» Hypotactic enhancement the enhancing clause is introduced by different kinds of hypotactic connectors expressing circumstantial information, such as temporal ‘while’, ‘since’, ‘because’, ‘as’, ‘after’, ‘before’, ‘if’, ‘(in order) to’, ‘so that’, ‘unless’…. Ø «‘I could tell you my adventures, beginning from this morning,’ said Alice a little timidly: ‘but it’s no use going back to yesterday, because I was a different person then’» Ø «Harry woke early the next morning. Although it was daylight, he kept his eyes shut tight» Projection Two main kinds of projected clauses, depending on the verb (process) that projects:
- Mental processes project ideas
- Verbal processes project locutions o «‘I’m glad I’ve seen that done’, thought Alice». PROJECTED IDEA ( think = mental Process) o «‘I’m Ron Weasley’, Ron muttered». PROJECTED LOCUTION ( mutter = verbal Process) In projections, the difference between parataxis and hypotaxis depends on whether the idea/locution is quoted (traditional direct speech) or reported (traditional indirect speech) Quoting parataxis, coordinata quando si riporta proprio le parole dette, quando ci sono le virgolette
Reporting hypotaxis, subordinata quando si riporta quello detto in discorso indiretto Ø «‘Where shall I begin, please your Majesty?’, the White Rabbit asked». PARATACTIC PROJECTED LOCUTION (the White Rabbit’s words are quoted) Ø «The White Rabbit asked where he should begin». HYPOTACTIC PROJECTED LOCUTION (reported speech) Ø TIP: quoted Ideas/Locutions are usually easily recognisable thanks to the presence of quotation marks (‘…’, «…», ‘‘…’’). Unit 5 MOOD SYSTEM is one of grammar systems and it relates to interpersonal metafunction that focus on language that is used for interaction and communication
Functions in the mood system
The clause can be divided into two main ‘parts’, (mood block e residue) each with its own functions 1 Mood block (or mood element) Consists of
- Subject
- Finite ,,, anche may e might sono finite
- Modal adjuncts 2 Residue consists of
- Predicator
- Complement
- Circumstantial adjuncts (corresponding to the circumstances of transitivity. Mood block
Subject
‘’the entity that the speaker wants to make responsible for the validity of the clause’’ in other words, the entity by reference to which the clause can be affirmed or denied’’
Finite
The finite is the part of the VG that expresses tense, polarity and modality. The reminder of the VG is called Predicator Ex. ‘’the work ahead of us will be hard’’in the VG ‘’will be’’, ‘will’ is the finite and ‘be’ is the predicator, ‘the work ahead of us’(embedded PP) is the subject of the clause. Just like the subject, the finite can be ‘probed’ by adding a tag question. The tag question picks up the finite, together with the subject, changing the polarity (the work ahead of us will be hard, won’t it?)
Modal adjuncts
They are typically take form of adverbial groups or multi-word expressions such as unfortunately, frankly, to be honest… these are adjuncts that either express the speaker’s comment on the clause as a whole (unfortunately, to be honest) or express temporal or modal meanings proper (always, never, maybe) MODAL ADJUNCTS
Example There was a big bang There è subject Was è finite Imperative mood =no mood block They are typically used to give commands. Due to their exhortative or persuasive function, they are used in slogans, advertisings, some forms of parent-child interaction etc. The isn’t the finite but only the predicator Unit 6 ModeThe clause as message, textual metafunction structural cohesion: theme and rheme What is the meaning of cohesion? The act or fact of forming a united ‘whole’. A fundamental property of texts. Theme the central topic of a piece of writing or discussion. The concern of the message: what the speaker/writer chooses as the starting point of his/ her message. Rheme what is being said about the Theme (new information)
Theme in declarative clauses
In English, the theme always comes at the beginning of the clause. The theme extends up to the first element in the clause that has some function in transitivity: participant, process or circumstance. We call this TOPICAL THEME. It cannot include more than one of these transitivity elements. In a declarative clause, the TT is unmarked when it corresponds to the subject. In a declarative clause, the TT is marked when it does not correspond to the subject.
Theme in non-declarative clauses (interrogative-exclamative-imperative)
POLAR INTERROGATIVES
The full theme includes the finite plus the following participant. polar(yes/no) interrogatives DID J.K. ROWLING write the first HP book in 1997? TT: J.K ROWLING Did is also thematic, it comes before the TT, but NOT Topical FULL THEME: did (finite) + J.K.ROWLING (TT) WH INTERROGATIVES The TT is in the wh-element,interrogatives which also has a function in transitivity. The meaning of the wh-element is ‘’I want you to tell me the person, thing, manner’’ etc.
- When did J.K. Rowling write the first HP book?
- TT = When (meaning ‘I want you to tell me about time’ = Circumstance )
- Who wrote the first HP book?
- TT = who (meaning ‘I want you to tell me the Actor ’)
- What did J.K. Rowling write in 1997?
- TT = what (meaning ‘I want you to tell me the Goal ’) EXCLAMATIVE CLAUSES The TT is the exclamative wh- word followed by the group that is so called ‘’focus’’ of the exclamation exclamation clauses
- What a great book Harry Potter is! - TT = What a great book (wh-word + focus of the exclamation)
- How carefully she wrote the book! - TT = How carefully IMPERATIVE CLAUSES If positive, the TT I the Process
- Buy that book!
- TT = Buy (material Process) / if negative the full theme includes the finite+the following process imperative clauses.
- Don’t buy that book!
- TT = buy (material Process)
- Don’t is also thematic (it comes before the TT), but NOT Topical
- Full Theme = Don’t ( Finite ) + buy ( TT ) The part of the clause that is left once we have identified the TT is the rheme. Unit 7 There are three types of theme:
- The theme of a clause extends from the beginning of the clause up to (and including) the first element having n experiential function (transitivity): This is the Topical theme (unit 6)
- When the TT is preceded by other elements having a different function (interpersonal or textual), these too become thematic. We call them interpersonal and textual themes Remember: interpersonal and textual themes are optional elements (sometimes you find them, sometimes you don’t) only the TT is obligatory.
Continuity is established by leaving out. Or implying, some given information: a clause or a part of a clause can be omitted or substituted ü Example of Ellipsis : The hotel was closed for the winter when the accident occurred, and only four people were present. Three survived. Ellipsis of the Thing of the NG: Three (people). ü Example of Substitution : So the course has finished, hasn’t it? Yes, I think so. Substitution: ‘so’ stands for ‘(that) the course has finished’. Substitution Ellipsis v Noun: Nominal substitutes = one/ ones ; the same ; so One/s = Let's go and see the bears. The polar ones are over on that rock. The same = Winter in Canada is often damp. But it’s the same in the summer. So = Is John intelligent?
- He seems to be so. v Within the NG: e.g. Here are thirteen cards. Take any (-). Now give me any three (-). e.g. Some say one thing, others say another (-). e.g. Which hat will you wear? This is the best (-). e.g. Have another chocolate. No thanks; that was my third (-). e.g. Smith was the first person to leave. I was the second (-). v Verb: Verbal substitutes = do , be , have ; do/ be so Do/ do so = I finally called him. I’d wanted to do so for a long time. v Within the VG: e.g. Have you been swimming? Yes, I have (-). e.g. Is he complaining? He may be (-): I don’t care. e.g. I haven’t finished it yet. I hope you will have (-) by tomorrow. e.g. Some were laughing and others (-) crying. e.g. Were you laughing? No I wasn’t (-). e.g. John came, didn’t he? No, but he will (-). v Clause: Clausal substitutes = so , not****. So = Has Chile been hit by an earthquake? The news says so. Not = Are all the shops closed on Sundays? - I hope not. v Of a whole clause: e.g. I kept quiet because Mary gets embarrassed if anyone mentions John’s name. I don’t know why (-)****. e.g. Who could have broken those tiles?- I can’t think who (-).
Intersential conjunction
Conjunction only works as a non-structural cohesive device (realizing textual meaning) when it is used intersententially ex. Between different sentences, separated by a full stop. Intersectional conjunction
[1] The report is incomplete. [2] For example , it does not include sales in France. [1] and [2], besides being two separate clauses, are also separate sentences (units of writing beginning with a capital letter, ending with a full stop). For example here is a non-structural cohesive device. of intrasentential conjunction: [1] If you want a more substantial stuffing, [2] add a little mashed potato. [1] and [2] are two clauses forming a single clause complex , and one single sentence. If here is NOT a cohesive device: its function is Logical (Logical meanings, linking clauses in a clause complex).
Lexical relations
Continuity is established by the choice of lexical words , through:
- Repetition : the same word(s) is/are repeated;
- Lexical scatter : a particular kind of repetition, in which what is repeated is the ‘root’, but in different word forms, e.g. survive and survivor ;
- Synonymy / Antonymy : in the text we find words having similar meaning (synonymy) or opposite meaning (antonymy);
- Hyponymy : in the text we find words that are related to the same general ‘class’, e.g. salmon , tuna , sea bream , which are ‘types of’ fish ;
- Meronymy : in the text we find words that are parts of the same ‘whole’, e.g. branch , leaf , trunk , which are ‘parts of’ a tree ;
- Collocation : in the text we find words that often tend to appear together, such as pinch and salt , black and white …
