The Language of Persuasion in Politics: An Analysis of Rhetorical Strategies - Prof. Zollo, Schemi e mappe concettuali di Lingua Inglese

Scarica The Language of Persuasion in Politics: An Analysis of Rhetorical Strategies - Prof. Zollo e più Schemi e mappe concettuali in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity!

ENGLISH EXAM

Professoressa Sole Alba Zollo

THE LANGUAGE

OF PERSUASION

IN POLITICS

Studente: Ilaria Addo - M06003911 - [email protected]

Capitolo 1: Politics and Language of persuasion

1.1 Politics is conducted through language- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

In fact, language is very important for the transformation political into social action.

How the politicians express themself, determines who they are.

The limits of politician’s language define the limits of their carrier.

We can define the politics language as the language used by institutions to communicate with other

institutions.

Most ordinary people haven’t experience in politic because most of the time their experience is mediated

through TV, radio or website.

The definition of democratic politics is “The Art of Persuasion” also know as “Rhetoric.”

1.2 Persuasion and Rhetoric in a democracy society - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

In a democracy the principal use of political language is for persuasion in debate.

Political persuasion was born with the first democracy in ancient Greece.

The greeks developed what they termed “The Art of Rhetoric”.

Rhetoric have three main fields of application:

1) POLITICS 2) LAW 3) SPEECHES IN PUBLIC

Aristotele identified three appeals of rhetoric:

) ETHOS 2) LOGOS 3)PATHOS

The attempt to establish The attempt to present an The attempt to appeal to the

the credential to justify argument in a logical way audience’s emotions

why you should be listened to.

An adversary may attempt to

delegitimise your ethos discrediting your credentials.

The rhetoric is used with three different meaning:

1) Arts of persuasive discourse

Aristotele argues that we employ the art of persuasione everyday, We use the word to induce actions in

other people, so we influence the behaviors of other people. However, in the real life attempts to

influence are often met with resistance and suspicion.

2) Knack

Platone argues that rhetoric means the knack to hide falsehood or ignorance

3) Grandiloquence

Rhetoric means use high-sounding but empty language

Capitolo 2: Evaluation

2.1 Evaluative language - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Language which express the opinion or point of the view of a speaker is called “evaluative language”.

• (^) Evaluation is intended as the indication of thoughts’s speaker that something is good or not, favourable

or unfavourable.

• (^) Evaluation is the base of persuasion, in fact, politicians use evaluative language to convince their

audience that their opinions are good and other opinions aren’t good. In addition, the politicians try to

have the audience adopt their preferred evaluation related a precise argument.

• (^) Evaluation can be:

1) OVERTLY (or explicit) 2) COVERTLY (or implicit)

Can be achieved through grammatical, textual or In this case, the politicians don’t give obvious

lexical means linguistic clues, but using the audience’s ability

to recognize a good or bad thing.

Grammatical evaluation

COMPARATIVES (better/worse than)

The system of transitivity is the grammatical

structuring which tell us “who do what to whom”.

In simply word it tell us who is the “Doer” and who

is the “Done-to” of an cation. This allows to express

evalutations of responsibility

Textual evaluation

Evaluation expressed by the particular ordering of “blocks”

of language in certain text’s parts.

Usually the final part of a news paper indicate favoured

solutions to problems proposed.

STRAW MAN TECNIQUES:

Can happened that a speaker gives two solution, first of

which isn’t agree and second of which is agree and wish

that his audience adopt.

Lexical evaluation

The most sign of evaluation is on the lexis: words or phrases

that a speaker uses. We can define two kinds of word:

1) Grammar Word 2) Content word

determiners, linkers and nouns, verbs, adverbs

prepositions and adjectives

We find a variety of word that have evaluation in they meaning

2.2 Evaluation by language choice - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

There are many ways of sayings the same thing and speaker can choose among these potential ways.

The choice of vocabulary can tell us a great deal about how they evaluate the topic in question and their

opinions about it.

We can define:

Denotation Connotation Is the basic meaning of the word Is association that a word has for us to a word a definition we can find a dictionary 2.3 “Insider” and “Outsider” words - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Related to the question of good or bad evaluative connotation is Is the question relate to difference among label that a group chooses to describe itself (insider words) and label that people outside the group use to describe it (outsider words). The use of a word or a certain type of language tell us much about the person speaking as about the topic of the discourse. 2.4 Hooray words and boo words - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - HOORAY: BOO: Coined by Jamie Whyte, the term has a socially good con- Is the term that has a bad connotation and give a disapp- notation and give an approval sense in an audience. roval sense in audience. There are many hooray words and the are includes in Many boo words are simple antonyms of hooray word items such as freedom, respect, hope, justice and so on. derived from them by a prefix such as INjustice, When hooray words are used we can be expected that Inequality and so on. There are boo words for one group everyone are in favour. but not for others. 2.5 Evaluation by selection of info: what to leave in and what to leave out - - - - - Textbooks on journalism often tech that a news story has to answer the readers questions: What? When? Where? Who? Why? How? Their answer can be short for all except for “How?” And “Why” because they are open question and are answered in different ways. Sometimes in the news story not every question have an answer, and this can means that the writer want exclude information that the reader can define irrelevant but in reality isn’t so. 2.5 Evaluation and modality - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Modality refers to the grammatical system which speakers can use to express their certainty, possibility, necessity or ability using modal words or modal expressions. Modality is the space between “yes” or “no”. It’s also possible to iper-commit to a belief for ex. Using words such as “absolutely” or “definitely”. Evaluation and modality are often linked, for example: “The politicians had no need to take the birbe” (“Il politico non aveva bisogno di prendere la tangente”) Of course the modal expression of moral responsibility, are most explicit evaluation and for things that generally are evaluated as negative, the degree of commitment to the belief in a specific fact can be an evaluation of it. The most frequent modality is that of necessity: something needs to be done and someone should be doing it. (qualcosa deve necessariamente fatta e qualcuno deve farla) Modality have various evaluations in fact speakers or writers often have different views about a topic.

3.4 The hypothesis-evidence-explanation model - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The speaker introduces his principal argument in terms of a hypothesis, then provides the audience to support them. They attempt to prove their own hypothesis to provide counter-evidence. 3.5 Association - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - This model of persuasion, is conducted through other resources like music, image, colors. They are used in the hope of creating favourable associations in our minds about a person, party and so on. It’s called “image politics”. Some politicians have themselves been known to judge their rivals by their looks , words or idea. In the past too, the image was important and politicians have always the importance of attractive or impressive associations. In terms of dress politicians were expected to dress formally and at election time, have always prominent place in persuading electors.

Capitolo 4: Cave emptor

4.1 Euphemism and Dysphemism - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Political rhetoric is characterized by euphemism and dysphemism that involve choosing of lexical items that have a evaluative connotation. Their description are de expression of “spin” and evaluation. Both are used to try to persuade the audience. In particular: EUPHEMISM DYSPHEMISM We can define it as the renaming of a negative actions in We can define it as the expression of an action in natural term for delete the negative aspects. negative terms for highlighting negative light. HAVE A POSITIVE EVALUATIONS HAVE A NEGATIVE EVALUTAION In politics are a form of rhetorical delegitimization that we can define as the attempt to discredit the ability of an opponent. ESEMPIO: There are political parties that talk about “modernization” in euphemistically term when they refers to privatization, other political talk about it in dysphemistically terms because they refer to destruction response to proposed changes. 4.2 The “ad hominem” argument - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The “ad hominem” is one of most common of the classical non-rational arguments. We cad define it as attacking a person e not his arguments: it is a very form of attempted delegitimisation of an opponent. Responding to this kind of attack in a verbal interaction can be challenge because they are “derailments” of the debate. In the speaker who has been attacked, attempt to counter the attack the accept the derailment, if they ignore it, the allow the attack to stand. 4.3 Tu quoque - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - This is a subcategory of “ad hominem”. In this situations the person that making an argument is accused of having spoken or acted in a way inconsistent with the argument. ESEMPIO: Jefferson called slavery as “this great political and moral evil” but himself owned a large number of black slaves and even a relationship with one of his slaves. 4.4 The slippery slope - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - This technique is based about the assumption That something isn’t necessary wrong, but is evaluated as bad because it could open the door to something really wrong. In political argument the slippery slope is most used in relation to discussion on freedom of speeches. 4.5 (False) Binary opposition - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - A binary opposition is when we assume that there are only two choice when there are actually more and it is used to create what is sometime called “false dilemma”. First of all, only items which are considered to be related in some way are treated as ANTONYM There are 3 kinds of antonyms: GRADABLE COMPLEMENTARY CONVERSE Two extreme words (cold-hot) Real opposite and not gradable (dead-alive) Different rules in relationship (wife-husband)

Capitolo 5: The rhetoric of liberty, freedom, emancipation

There are many devices of rhetoric, they are: binomials, bicolors, tricolors, contrasting pairs and oxymorons. They define the “poetic”function of language, playing with the lenguage’s sound. 5.1 Binomials and bicolons - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - BINOMIAL BICOLONS Are semi-fixed phases of two or more words that Are expressions contains two parallel Belong to same grammatical category and are joined by phrases and can be found in political syntactic device such as “and”, “or”. rhetoric and Bible too. They are used often in legal and politic language Esempio: salt&pepper, law&order and so on. 5.2 Tricolons - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

• They consist in the repetition of three word Esempio: Out, out, out
• Most tricolors consist also in a set of three phrases that have similar lexical
• In addition, they can be many different kinds of elegant variations Esempio: It is a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma (Matryoshka)
• A good number of tricolors have a metrical pattern of crescendo Esempio: Friends, Romans, Countryman
• Sometimes there are beyond three expression and is a kind of elegant variation on the tricolor Esempio: It is a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma (Matryoshka) 5.3 The contrasting pair (or antithesis)- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The contrasting pair is a structure containing two parts which are parallel in structure but opposed in meaning. This is a subcategory of “bicolons” Esempio: Small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind The contrasting pair technique is suitable and used in the discourse of bipartisan democracy to contrast them. A special form of contrasting pairs is CHIASMUS that is the element of the first part are switched around in the second. Esempio: L’umanità deve porre fine alla guerra o la guerra porrà fine all’umanità 5.4 Oxymorons - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Two apparently contradictory elements are combined in a single word or phrase: "a deafening silence". Very often this opposition between the elements is evaluative also in politics: "radical conservative". It is often used to make an argument by negative evaluating and suggesting that two components are incompatible. 5.5 Declaration of indipendence- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The Declaration was drafted by Jefferson, one of the founding fathers of the nation. Jefferson says he wrote the document, but it contains traces of “the bill of rights” which define the subjects’s rights. The war itself was partly one of liberation, partly a civil war, with American colonists fighting on both sides. This explains why the overall tone of the document is both accusatory and defensive, a justification of secession. When the war was over, however, the revolution and the declaration were soon seen by many Americans as part of the "manifest

destiny" of the moral and material supremacy of the nation. The rhetoric of freedom of the Declaration is inspiring, it contains more than a touch of hypocrisy. Many american black slaves joined the pro british side, and were freed from slavery. After the end of the war, those who could not escape to british Canada were sold back into slavery by the freedom-fighting secessionists

Capitolo 7: Metaphors and company

Many forms of persuasive discourse contain large numbers of rhetoric figures used to make arguments by comparison or analogy 7.1 Metaphors - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Metaphor is a figure in which name or quality is attributed to something to which it is not literally applicable. It express how we see the world and how we explain it. How metaphors work A certain quality to belong to an entity (source) is re-applied to another entity (target) which is usually very different from the source. Metaphors always express an evaluation of the target in terms of good or bad. The power of metaphor is that the grounds are implicit. This has two consequences:

1. Different people can interpret the same metaphors in different ways
2. Makes the supposed resemblance more difficult to challenge or deny However, politicians and political journalists are skilled users of language. Metaphors and irony One frequent tactic is to take the metaphor in terms of irony and use it against another speaker. Metaphor differs from simile to the absence of comparative adverbs or adverbial phrases ("like") and for this reason it is also called "abbreviated similitude"; Metaphor is also different from metonymy, because metonymy associates two similar things, while metaphor relates two different things.) 7.2 Similes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - A simile is a statement that makes a comparison between two different entities, with the use of comparatives: for example ”Putin is like a shark” They have four attributes

• (^) They exploit the analogy of two different things in the roles of target and source
• (^) They contain an explicit lexical signal of comparison
• They are often accompanied by an ‘explanation’ of why the source and target are supposedly similar
• They are evaluative and so are often used to persuade. Right noises are political metaphors that are part of the language of persuasion but, in other situations, for example during electoral campaigning they can be employed to communicate to an audience shared values and evaluation. 7.3 Metonymies - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - In Metonymies some entity is alluded to be mentioned of something else connected or associated with it; for example “Shoulder to Shoulder” In some occasions, the “something else” connected to an entity is simply something related to it.

Some metonymies can be topological (tipologia) ● THE CROWN Esempio: “We have always remained loyal to the crown”: the crown symbolizes the king of a particular country. This metonymy is used commonly when talking or writing; Esempio: ‘The pen is mightier than the sword’: the ‘ pen’ stands in for ‘the written world’, the ‘ sword ’ stands in for ‘military aggression and force’. This rhetoric expression is used to underline the power of written papers which can go beyond that of physical strength. PERSONIFICATION: is giving human traits (qualities, feelings, action or characteristics) to non living objects (things, colors, qualities or ideas), for example: "The window winked at me". The verb, wink, is a human action. A window is a non-living object. The use of these devices could be dangerous if the reader is not aware of how an analogy can be used for persuading and manipulation: ARAB WORLD: is a special kind of metonymy. Sometimes it refers to something like ‘all who reside in western countries’. In both UK and Arab newspapers, the expression "arab world" was very frequently part of a prepositional phrase, then, very often, functions as part of a "container metaphor" or as a "member of a club" metaphor. The next question was: "how was the Arab world viewed in the UK papers"; Was the Arab world "doer" or "done to"? It was much more likely to be in some way passively "Done to". The former of the topics regarding the Arab world include investments, economics, and so on, attesting to a greater interest in the economy and sphere of business in the Arab world. The Arab newspapers are also more widely critical of the Arab world than the UK papers; they criticise the Arab world for a lack of democracies rights, the unequal legal condition of women in some Arabic countries and also for a lack of employment opportunities and deficiencies in healthcare and education systems .

Repetition and interruption Another tactic can be used by interviewer is REPETITION: The interviewer repeats the question for highlighting that the interviewee eludes the answer and can make respondent seem evasive. In addition there is INTERRUPTION: Used to challenge the interviewee. By interruption, the interviewer take control and evaluates negatively the interviewee’s answer as unimportant. It’s a kind of delegitimisation of the interlocutor. However if the speaker used this tactics, there are risks because if speaker being hostile, will be accused of missed “neutrality”. So we can hide a dangerous proposition as a presupposition used:

- Yes/no questions - Ask tag questions - Negative interrogative - Cite the interviewee's own words - Ask for agreements to a dangerous proposition - Repeat the question - Interrupt the other’s turn - Do presuppositions 8.5 Taking responsibility or not: attribution and neutralism - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - When the criticism in a question is strong, in many case, the ideas in question are ascribed to another source or another authorities. This phenomenon is known as ATTRIBUTION and it enables the interviewer to appear neutral respect the interviewee and his answers, but this highlighting that the neutrality of the interviewer is an artifice. NEUTRALISM is a term used by Clayman to indicate that the speaker don’t specify the secondary source. 8.6 Who is talking? Someone above you or one of you? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Another important tool in the fightback is how a politician chooses to present themselves in their responses. The speaker claims a particular ETHOS which is a model of authority to speak on the topic than their interlocutors who may not share these identities. Politicians can also swap between identities or who is speaking: the pronouns "I, WE" have been much studied in political discourse analysis (this strategy is not always successful). The ability to witch the style is associated with authenticity and it can be changed consciously and unconsciously. Another strategy is the style that they use: all speakers naturally use different styles of language in different contexts, a less formal style.

Capitolo 9: Humor, irony and satire in politics

9.1 Politics and humour - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Politics and humour enjoy a relationship: humour is a tool used for evaluation and it can have negative or positive meaning. Politicians use humor to attack or criticise a rhetorical advantage over rivals. In a democratic system, humor plays a role in the “us against them” in other words “our good ideas are contrasting their bad ideas”. Humor has a subversive power that allows powerless to gain power. It can be used not only to attack others but even to gain popularity for themselves: politicians need to project affective and competence face and one common and effective way to do so is to portray a sense of humour and to show the ability to "take a joke". This is the ability to make humour directed against oneself: self-deprecating humour but in some cases, politicians are accused of being 'two-faced' for example Lincoln (do you think if I had two faces I would have worn this?). 9.2 Irony and sarcasm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IRONY and SARCASM both share the same common negativism of the manipulation of a public narrative. Irony is constructed by speakers when they put together two narratives with they propose as radically different even incompatible with each other. We can define: EXPLICIT IRONY IMPLICIT IRONY Speaker uses some explicit signal of irony, expression as There are two narratives called: “Ironically”, “It’s ironic that” and so on. DICTUM: is the narrative spoken - evaluation expressed IMPLICATUM: is the narrative implied - evacuation that really intended Between those two evaluations there is a gap. Sarcasm is a particular kind of verbal irony, in particular an overtly aggressive type of implicit irony with a clear “victim” can be defined as a particular kind of verbal irony with a clear "victim": rhetorical questions can be vehicle of sarcasm. It is not always a bad thing, sometimes it referred to their own behaviour as sarcastic and portrayed it as a response to some other person’s aggressive verbal behaviour. 9.3 Satire - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Humour in politics is associated with satire.

• (^) It’s a meaning of persuasione: a person, a behavior that is evaluated unfavourably in the hope of persuading the audience that somethings has to change.
• (^) In political satire individual or groups can be satirized
• (^) It is different from criticism because it attack directly the object
• (^) It’s depends on comparison of 2 word one real and one invented (ex. Real world and children’s world)
• (^) It employs parody, imitation of style of speaking Often is used for entertainment and produces “moral superiority”in the audience to feel them more intelligent than the object of the satire. An important example of modern literature is the book of George Orwell called “Animal Farm”

The referendum questions must be:

• (^) easy to understand;
• (^) be to the point;
• (^) be unambiguous;
• (^) avoid encouraging voters to consider one response then another; The initial question was "Should the UK remain a member of the EU?" and the responses were YES, which is more advantaged and sounds more positive about the future and more active, and NO, that sounds negative. So, the question was changed in "Should the UK remain a member of the EU or leave the EU?" and the responses were: remain a member or leave the EU. The most common metaphors used in anti-secessionist were: ● "The UK is a marriage and secession is a divorce"; ● "The Union is a home, a fabric, a team, and a family; ● "We are a family of Nations".