Scarica Slide esame teorico inglese e più Slide in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity!
What is communication? Communication is the process of transmitting information from one entity to another. COMMUNICATIVE ACT A communicative act is an intentional action performed to convey meaning or information to others. It can involve language, gestures, writing, symbols, or other forms of expression to share ideas and emotions. Communication can therefore occur through words ( verbal ) or without words ( non-verbal ). These acts can be simple interactions or complex exchanges. Communicative acts are important in interpersonal relationships, social interactions, and the exchange of information in society. A communicative act is made up of several key components. The sender is the person or entity that initiates the communication. The message is the content being communicated; it can be verbal, non-verbal, written, or visual. The medium refers to the channel used to transmit the message, such as speech, writing, images, or digital platforms. The receiver is the person or audience who receives and interprets the message. The context includes the situation, cultural background, and environment that influence the meaning of the communication. Jakobson identifies six functions of language , each corresponding to one of the elements present in communication. The referential function focuses on the context or information being conveyed. The emotive function expresses the speaker's feelings or attitudes. The conative function aims to influence the behavior or response of the receiver. The phatic function serves to establish or maintain communication. The metalinguistic function is used to clarify or explain the language being used. The poetic function focuses on the aesthetic qualities of language. MEDIA CONVERGENCE Media convergence refers to the merging of different media into a single device or platform. In the past, different functions were separated (e.g., watching TV, listening to music, sending messages), but today, a single device like a smartphone can perform all of these tasks. What appears to be a single medium actually contains many different media. The complexity of media Media also includes physical objects , electronic devices , and digital platforms. Media shapes how messages are formulated, transmitted, and received. For example, the character limit on X influences how language is used, encouraging brevity, abbreviations, and creative expression. MEDIATION Mediation is the process of facilitating interaction between two entities. All interactions are mediated by language, sounds, visuals, or technology. McLuhan said that media are « extensions » of man, extending our communicave capabilities, what we can do, and who we can be. Mediation also involves social and cultural factors, meaning that the way we use media is deeply influenced by conventions, habits, and ideologies. MEDIA IDEOLOGIES Media ideologies are the sets of conventions and beliefs associated with media use. They include ideas about how different media should or should not be used; where and when media are appropriate or inappropriate; what kinds of people should or should not use them; whether media should be used with other people or not; and what types of messages should or should not be communicated through them. Media ideologies vary across
cultures, social groups, and individuals. They also evolve over time, especially with the development of new technologies. Language and mediation Media and language are intertwined. Understanding a message also requires cultural knowledge and context. Language includes words, images, symbols, and body language. In many cases, understanding a message depends on multiple forms of communication. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, focusing on what language does. Critical discourse analysis is a method that reveals how language can manipulate people and hide power relations. DISCOURSE Discourse includes everything we see, hear or write that conveys coherent meaning. Traditionally, discourse included spoken or written texts, but today it also includes extra-linguistic forms of communication such as images, gestures, layout, and other non-verbal forms of expression. Language is a form of social practice , shaped by social structures. There is a strong relationship between discourse and power : the way we use language can reflect, maintain, or challenge power dynamics in society. What do discourse analysts do? Discourse analysts study how people use language in longer stretches and how it interacts with other forms of communication , such as images, written text, and gestures. They are also interested in the relationship between language and social organization. LEZIONE 06/03: Media, modes, materiality TEXT A text is a unit of communication that can be written, spoken, or visual. Texts convey meaning through coherent and meaningful combinations of words, images, or symbols. The meaning of a text is constructed, and its interpretation depends on context, audience, cultural background, and purpose. A single text can have multiple layers of meaning. According to Barthes, the meaning of an image is not fixed. A caption can guide or “ anchor ” the picture to one specific meaning. So, the meaning of the image also depends on the texts that accompany it, called cotexts , and the social situation in which the message is shared, called context. MEDIUM A medium is the physical tool that makes communication possible. It can include traditional formats like books, newspapers, television, and radio, as well as digital platforms such as websites, messaging apps, or social media. Each medium has specific affordances that influence how messages are produced, shared, and interpreted. The choice of medium affects the way content is structured, who has access to it, and how audiences engage with it. MODE A mode is an organized set of resources used to create meaning. There are different types of modes : visual mode: images, colors, and layout; textual mode: written words and typography; auditory mode: sounds, music, and voiceovers. Different modes offer different possibilities for communication. For example, language is sequential when it is organized linearly or typological when it is organized by categories, while still images are simultaneous when they are presented all together or topological when they express a visual variation. MULTIMODALITY Multimodality assumes that communication and representation combine different modes that contribute to the construction of meaning. For example, combining visuals and writing is a form of multimodality. It focuses
Style Style is a way of speaking or writing that expresses identity and a sense of belonging. It can be formal or informal, standard or non-standard, professional or casual. Alan Bell’s Audience Design Theory (1984) We modify our language depending on who we believe is listening. This includes code-switching and style- switching. In media, producers shape their style based on their imagined audiences. Linguistic style often reinforces social stereotypes by linking speech patterns , accents , and language choices to specific social traits such as intelligence , morality , gender , or social class. Style also includes visual design. Layout is a "mode of spatial composition" , which is important in how messages are received. Analyzing genre Linguist Bhatia developed a framework to analyze genres systematically. This framework includes seven analytical steps:
- Placing the genre text in a situational context
- Analyzing existing literature
- Refining the situational/contextual analysis
- Selecting a corpus of texts to study
- Studying the institutional context
- Carrying out a linguistic analysis
- Consulting specialist informants By following these steps, it is possible to identify the purpose, structure, and linguistic features of a genre. Swales introduced the concepts of moves and steps in genre analysis. Moves are distinct sections of a text, each with a clear communicative function and identifiable linguistic choices. Steps are smaller units within a move that help achieve its function. For example, a news story is a genre that aims to inform. It follows the inverted pyramid structure , where the most important information is placed at the beginning and less relevant information at the end. The aim is to immediately capture the audience’s attention. A news article is structured into three main parts: the headline and lead, the body, and the tail. The headline is the first element the reader sees. It uses distinctive language. Headlines are usually short, unusual, sensational, often using rhetorical devices such as metaphors, metonymy, and alliteration. The lead paragraph follows the headline and contains the most important information. Sometimes, the lead includes a hook to attract the reader’s attention. The body is the main section of the article. It provides detailed information about the event or issue and is organized according to the inverted pyramid structure, presenting the most crucial facts first, followed by background, context, and less essential information. The tail , or closing section, contains extra or related information but is not essential to understand the main story. Style vs. Genre Styles and genres are different concepts; however, style helps define and make genres recognizable. A particular media genre is recognizable and interpretable by audiences in part because of the styles and other discursive practices that become closely associated with it.
A framework for analyzing style examines two aspects: situational characteristics and linguistic features. Situational characteristics include: Participants: the speaker and the listener. Relations : how the participants relate to each other. Channel : the mode and medium through which the message is transmitted. Production : whether the message is spontaneous, planned, revised, or edited. Setting : where and when the communication takes place. Purposes : the reason for the communication (to inform, persuade, entertain, etc.). Topic : the general subject of the communication. Linguistic features describe how the language is used: A factual style uses more nouns, noun phrases, and prepositions. A conversational style uses more fillers, contractions, and short responses. Situational factors and linguistic features contribute to the creation of distinctive styles. LEZIONE 14/03: Storytelling e reading NARRATIVE Narrative is the act of telling a story. Storytelling is a universal activity, an innate tendency to organize events into memorable stories. Today, social media has opened up new opportunities to create, share, and consume stories. Narratives are specific genres with defined characteristics, structural conventions, and social purposes. The canonical model of narrative includes six main parts: Abstract : a short summary of the story Orientation : information about who was involved, what happened, where, and when. Complicating Action : events that move the story forward. Evaluation : an explanation of the importance or meaning of events. Result or Resolution : what happened at the end of the story. Coda : a final comment that brings the audience back to the present. Storytelling depends on different elements: the context or situation in which the story is told; the medium or channel used to deliver the story; and the modes and materialities associated with that medium. Storytelling and narrative are performances that happen in a sociocultural context. As a performance, storytelling combines tradition and innovation, and the storyteller has power or influence over the audience. While stories often follow conventional structures , they can also include an unexpected twist that pushes the story in a new or surprising direction. Storytelling Stories are not passive speech acts; they are co-constructed in conversation. Stories are forms of talk-in- interaction , and narratives are collaborative events. In informal settings, listeners participate actively by asking questions or giving short responses, or by helping to guide the story. Not all narratives follow traditional structures. Sometimes we tell fragments of stories to share news quickly : these are small stories. Narratives fit into different genres, such as: Breaking news Projections Shared stories
In news media, the way events are reported can influence how the audience views the action. Example: “Protesters were arrested by the police.” In this sentence, the agent (“police”) is less noticeable and the focus is on the patient (“protesters”). This can shape the audience’s perception, presenting the protesters as passive victims. Nominalization is the process of turning a verb or an adjective into a noun. This allows actions or qualities to be presented as things or concepts, making the sentence more formal, abstract and less personal. In news reporting, nominalization is often used to distance the writer from the action. It can make events seem more neutral, authoritative, and objective. Example: “He investigated the crime.” (verb) becomes “ The investigation of the crime.” (nominalization). The second sentence gives fewer details about the action and sounds more impersonal. Evaluation refers to the way language is used to express the writer’s position or perspective on the events being described. It includes lexical and grammatical choices that express an opinion about things, people, and events. In news reporting, evaluation can be subtle but is important for conveying a particular tone, emotion, or perspective. Example: “The devastating storm caused significant damage to the town” uses evaluative language. The words devastating and significant add an evaluative element. Naming practices refer to the way individuals, groups, or events are labeled or described. This can carry connotations or biases. The choice of words can strongly influence how the reader perceives the subject. Example: “The thieves broke into the store.” (Thieves implies criminal behavior.) “The activists broke into the store.” (Activists may suggest a cause-driven motive.) Brand Narratives in Advertising Advertising is the process of creating and sending messages to promote a product, service, or brand to a target audience. It is typically paid communication through media channels. The goal is to influence consumer behavior, increase awareness, and drive sales. What are brand narratives? A key element in advertising is the use of brand narratives. Companies invest time and money to create a coherent brand image that communicates the values and activities they want people to connect with their products or services. Brand narratives are the stories companies tell about themselves or the people they want consumers to imagine being. Some brands focus on telling stories about their company’s values (Starbucks), or about the founder behind the brand (Apple). Why brand narratives matter? Brand narratives are important because they convey values, lifestyle, and identity. There is an connection between brand narrative and consumers’ personal stories. Effective storytelling creates a lasting emotional connection that drives consumer loyalty and influences consumer behavior. Key elements of branding Branding supports these narratives through visual and symbolic elements. These include logos, color schemes, employee uniforms, product packaging, and even the architecture of buildings. These elements create memorable associations that reflect the brand’s identity and values. Brand narratives are shared through ads, commercials, press releases, and promotional materials. Dialogical interactions in brand and consumer narratives
Another important aspect is dialogical interaction, the two-way communication between brands and audiences. Brands encourage interaction , feedback , and participation. Their narratives connect with consumers’ life stories and identities inviting them to imagine themselves as part of a larger narrative, aligned with the brand’s identity. In this way, consumers take part in the brand’s story, helping to create a strong emotional and psychological connection. LEZIONE 21/03: Brand narratives Advertising structure and example A typical advertising structure includes: a brief summary of the story; the main character(s) and their role; symbolism and metaphors used; target audience and cultural references; final message or takeaway from the ad. One example is the Apple Watch 4 advertisement. In this ad, a female runner is “magically” lifted into the air and flies above the clouds before landing in water. The Apple Watch is shown only at the end of the ad, to show that it is water resistant. The message of the ad is clear: buying an Apple Watch is not just about getting a functional device; it is about choosing a lifestyle of freedom, fitness, and resilience. What is branding in tourism? Branding in tourism means creating a strong and recognizable identity for a place. It includes logos, slogans, visuals, and consistent messaging that shape what visitors expect. Tourism brands show what makes a place special. They use cultural symbols, local heritage, and famous landmarks to differentiate themselves from other destinations. Tourism discourse Tourism discourse refers to the language , communication strategies , and narratives used to promote , describe , and shape the travel experience. The main features of tourism discourse are: Descriptive and narrative elements Persuasive language Cultural and geographical references Tourism discourse is: Descriptive , using descriptions to create appealing images. Promotional , using positive adjectives, superlatives, and emotional language. Informative , providing information on how to reach a place and what to do there. It also uses narrative techniques to engage the audience. Storytelling in tourism discourse Storytelling is very important in tourism discourse because it make places memorable and emotionally engaging. It helps create experiences for visitors. There are different types of tourism storytelling : Historical storytelling, about ancient ruins, legends, and myths. Personal storytelling, through travel blogs, influencer experiences, visitor testimonials. Environmental storytelling, promoting sustainable tourism. Brand-led storytelling, where tourism boards create narratives through videos, social media, and advertisements. Nature tourism Nature tourism focuses on natural areas such as forests, mountains, beaches, and wildlife reserves. The goal is to experience and appreciate the natural world.
Heteroglossia and dialogicity challenge the idea of singular authorship. They show that authorship in media production is complex and question the idea of texts as fully original creations. Media production involves constant negotiation, as a balance must be found between originality and borrowing or adapting ideas. Communities of practice Communities of practice are groups of people who share activities and learn from each other through ongoing interaction. The main characteristics of a community of practice (CoP) include shared goals and practices, regular interaction, learning through participation and the development of a shared repertoire , such as language, tools, routines, and values. For example, a newsroom is a community of practice where journalists collaborate, learn from senior editors, and follow common style guidelines and ethical codes. Entextualization Entextualization is the process of taking discourse from one context and reusing or reshaping it in another. For example, turning a spoken interview into a written news article or quoting a politician in a newspaper headline. Not everyone has the same power to create or share texts; authority is needed to officially produce media. Discourse Representation in News Stories News stories are composed of messages from different sources. These include interviews , public addresses , and press conferences. They are also based on various organizational documents such as reports, surveys, letters, findings, agendas, minutes, proceedings, research papers. Press releases and prior news stories on the topic are also important sources. Additionally, journalists use their own notes from these sources, which may include personal thoughts or observations. Voices and intertextuality News stories use direct or indirect reporting and employ different reporting verbs such as say, claim, maintain, argue, or profess. The choice of reporting verb can change the meaning or tone of the message. Testimonials are also used, these are customer opinions that help enhance the credibility and appeal (or sellability) of a particular product. Access and Competency To entextualize effectively, you need access to events or people and skills and knowledge. These skills are usually gained through educational or professional settings. Some knowledge is not explicitly taught, but learned through experience and interaction. Firewalls in Journalism Firewalls are boundaries that separate editorial content (reporting) from business interests (advertising and money). Journalists are expected to not let advertising influence their reporting , supporting the value of neutrality (objectivity). However, in reality, the firewall can be weak or flexible. For example, a magazine might avoid publishing a negative review of a company that pays for ads in the same issue. Values and Rules in Journalism Neutrality is a fundamental journalistic value, connected to ethical news production. Objectivity influences how journalists present facts , aiming to be detached and unbiased. It also shapes the structure of news genres , such as keeping news and opinion separate. To appear neutral, journalists use linguistic strategies like attribution (direct quotes, paraphrasing) and hedging (words like "alleged" or "reportedly"). News Production News production is guided by editorial decisions about what to report, how to frame stories, and what to highlight. These decisions are made in editorial or story meetings , which are important events in the
community of practice (CoP). In these meetings, professionals negotiate values, goals, and audience expectations. LEZIONE 28/03: Audience and participation Journalists follow principles when deciding what to report and how to report it. Newsworthiness Standardization Innovation NEWSWORTHINESS Newsworthiness refers to the process of selecting. The media filter and frame stories based on several factors. These include timeliness, which considers whether the event is recent or connected to current developments; geographical and cultural proximity , meaning whether the event is geographically or culturally close to the audience; and prominence, which refers to whether it involves famous people or important institutions. News is constructed through editorial and discursive processes. STANDARDIZATION Media outlets aim for consistency in language use. This includes aspects like spelling, grammar, tone, style , and visual elements. Most mainstream media use a standard language. Media institutions act as “ bastions ” of standard language , reinforcing and spreading it. Journalists and editors view themselves as guardians of linguistic standards. They work to preserve and promote them in their professional practices. This commitment leads to the marginalization of vernacular or non-standard varieties, which are often considered incorrect or inferior. This tendency reflects language standardization: a process that reduces variation and limits linguistic choice. INNOVATION It is impossibile to fully preserve the standard language because language and public attitudes are continually evolving. Media must also cater to diverse audiences , so they adapt their language and style. The role of media has shifted from a one-directional public address system to a multi-voiced and more inclusive communication space. Two main reasons caused this change:
1. Commercial broadcasting: it responds to audience ratings and market demand , leading to more varied formats. 2. Digital media and multichannel broadcasting : have enabled wider access and participation. Platforms like blogs and YouTube have introduced non-professionals into media production, introducing new speech styles, dialects, and voices into mainstream discourse. Linguistic varieties vs. Standard language Today’s media landscape includes more diversity of voices and linguistic varieties than in the past. However, this does not reduce the prestige of standard language, as “ authorized voices ” still support standard norms. This prestige reflects and maintains existing social hierarchies and structures. To understand media discourse today, we need to pay attention to how multiple voices interact, and how language hierarchies are reinforced or challenged across different media formats. Production Formats and discourse Representation Goffman introduced the concept of production formats , which describes the roles people take in communication. The producer of a message can be: Animator: the person who gives voice to the message;
Audiences, interaction and participation Communication is a form of social interaction. Media is not just about content but also about interaction between people. Different media shape how we connect, share, and respond. De Saussure's Conduit Model (1916) De Saussure’s conduit model of communication describes conversation as an exchange of spoken messages between two people. In this model, A’s thoughts are converted into words and spoken as an utterance. The utterance is sent through a channel to B, who hears and decodes it into thoughts similar to A’s original ideas. This process is represented as: thoughts → words → utterance → heard → decoded → thoughts. Communication, in this view, is imagined as simple turn-taking. This model was important in early linguistics but it oversimplifies real-life communication. Shannon and Weaver’s Model (1948) The Shannon and Weaver model of media communication includes five main elements: Sender → Encoder → Channel → Decoder → Receiver. Two additional key concepts are noise , which refers to anything that interferes with the message, and feedback, which is the receiver’s response. This model is important for understanding how communication works, especially in digital and mass media. Limits of traditional models Traditional communication models have limits because real communication is more complex and dynamic. There can be multiple listeners or speakers, competing voices and power dynamics, and meaning is shaped by context and shared experience. Simple encoding and decoding do not fully capture the complexity. The meaning of a message also depends on who says it and to whom. Media audiences are diverse Media messages reach multiple audiences with different backgrounds, perspectives, and relationships to the sender. Media content is rarely created by a single author; it is usually the result of collaborative production. The interpretation of a message depends on the context, the audience’s prior knowledge, and their beliefs. Rethinking senders and receivers in digital media Digital communication does not follow traditional models. In online spaces, communication is more dynamic. On social media, for example: you imagine an audience, but actual reach is broader; algorithms shape how posts appear and spread; messages can be shared, reposted, or auto-generated. In this context, the roles of sender and receiver are more fluid. Limits of old models of communication Traditional communication models have limitations. They assume that one sender transmits a message to one receiver and focus more on transmission than on interaction. However, today’s media communication is much more complex. A more accurate model must reflect this complexity. It should recognize multiple senders and receivers , consider different relationships and positions toward the message, include the role of algorithmic mediation and platform influence , and account for invisible audiences. From ‘Listeners’ to Audiences In media studies, we talk about audiences. In commercial media, audiences are important because they generate profit. Today, audiences are not a single group but divided into smaller segments, targeted based on clicks, searches, and behaviors in real time.
From Audience Segments to Filter Bubbles Algorithms create filter bubbles , showing users only content that matches their beliefs. This limits exposure to different ideas and can increase polarization. Audiences are more fragmented because mass media no longer unites everyone. At the same time, digital platforms do not just serve audiences, they also shape them. Audience Design Media not only target audiences but also constructs them. The concept of the culture industry explains that media create consumer needs. Audiences are shaped to fit industry goals. Recommender systems like Netflix tend to show us content we already like, reinforcing our preferences. Media style adapts to audience expectations; a process called Audience Design. For example, newsreaders adjust their accents for different audiences, and the language used reflects assumptions about who is listening. Audience Design and Social Positioning Style is used to position people and reflects the roles and relationships assumed. It helps us show who the message is for and how we want it to be understood. Participation Frameworks In communication, people take on different roles depending on the situation. Goffman calls this the participation framework. These roles include: The addressee , the intended receiver and a ratified participant The auditor , someone known but not directly addressed, a ratified participant The overhearer , someone present but not meant to hear, so an unratified participant The eavesdropper , someone not supposed to listen at all, an unratified participant Speakers shift footing to adapt to multiple audiences. Context Collapse and Audience Segregation Audience segregation is the attempt to separate different groups of people so that only certain groups see specific content. However, audience segregation is difficult on social media. New media scholars call this phenomenon context collapse : social media removes spatial and social boundaries, making it harder to restrict communication to particular audiences. Media Settings and Participation Roles Media influence how many people can participate in communication and how they do it. One-to-one, like Messenger or phone calls: two people communicate privately. One-to-many, like Twitter or blogs: one person shares a message with many people. Many-to-many , like Reddit or forums: many people share and discuss messages together. Media are information systems because they change how people access, control, and monitor communication. Dimensions of Participation & Interactivity Different types of media allow people to participate and interact in different ways. Media vary by: Role reversibility : on apps like WhatsApp, people can quickly switch between sending and receiving messages (fast turn-taking). Co-presence or distance: FaceTime allows real-time video conversation, while texting creates more distance. Co-temporality : some communication happens live, while other messages can be read later. Persistence : some content disappears quickly, while other content stays online. Spontaneity : phone calls happen in the moment, while videos can be recorded and edited first. Richness : media can combine video, text, emojis, and more to create richer communication.
LEZIONE 03/03: Sensationalism and speech acts Participatory nature of WEB 2. With Web 2.0 the internet changed. Before that, in Web 1.0, websites were static. Now, people can create content, interact, and collaborate online. The main features are:
- User-generated content (UGC) : users create content for platforms. For example, people upload videos on YouTube or post short clips on TikTok.
- Social media and networking : platforms like Facebook, Instagram and X allow users to interact in real time and build communities.
- Collaborative Knowledge : users share and improve knowledge through collaboration. For example, anyone can edit Wikipedia articles or contribute to open-source projects.
- Algorithmic Personalization : algorithms suggest content based on users’ interests. However, this can create filter bubbles, where people only see content they like. FILTER BUBBLES Filter bubbles are isolated information environments created by algorithms through content personalization. They are shaped by search engines, social media, and news feeds that focus on content that generates engagement. As a result, users see content aligned with their past behavior and are less exposed to different opinions. This can cause confirmation bias , which reinforces pre-existing beliefs and reduces the shared factual basis for public discussions. POLARIZATION Polarization is the growing ideological gap between groups, amplified by digital media. Filter bubbles reinforce polarization through selective exposure : people avoid challenging information and outgroup hostility. Algorithms often promote extreme content to get more attention and engagement. Linguistic markers of polarization include: us vs. them framing; moral-emotional language and conspiracy narratives. SPEECH ACT A speech act is a form of verbal communication that does not simply convey information, but also performs an action. According to Speech Act Theory, when we speak, we are not only saying things, but also doing things. Each speech act operates on three levels: Locutionary act refers to the act of saying something and indicates the literal structure and content of the utterance. Through this act, the speaker communicates a specific message intentionally. For example, when someone says “It is raining,” the locutionary act is the act of producing that sentence, the actual words and their literal meaning. Illocutionary act is about the speaker's intention behind the sentence. The same locution can have different illocutionary meanings. For example, "I’ll be back." can be promise or threat, depending on who says it. Perlocutionary act is the listener's response. It refers to the actual effect of the utterance on the listener. The types of effects are: Behavioral: the listener acts; cognitive: the listener forms or changes a belief; and emotional: the listener has an emotional reaction. CONSTATIVE VS PERFORMATIVE SPEECH ACTS Speech acts can be divided into constatives and performatives. Constative speech act is a statement that describes something and can be evaluated as true or false. For example, “The sky is blue.” Performative speech act is an utterance that does something instead of just describing or stating something. It blurs the line between language and action because the utterance itself performs an action. For example, “I promise to help you.” (The act of promising happens through the utterance)
Performative acts are typically in the first person present tense, and their success depends on the context and authority of the speaker. CLICKBAIT Clickbait is content created to get as many clicks and shares as possible. It is often used to make money through advertising. It works by using cognitive and emotional triggers. Emotional content is more likely to be shared. The main purposes of clickbait are: monetization : more clicks lead to more profit and virality : sensational content spreads faster and reaches more people. Clickbait uses emotive words that evoke strong emotions. For example: "SHOCKING study reveals": creates surprise or fear. SENSATIONALISM Sensationalism is a discourse strategy used in media to make information more interesting, extraordinary, or relevant to capture the audience’s attention. It uses exaggerated language , emotive expressions , and moral judgments to increase engagement and provoke strong reactions. It is commonly found in headlines, clickbait content, and breaking news. Headlines have two main functions: to introduce the content and to attract readers. Sensational headlines use evaluative or moralistic language and sometimes questions to engage readers. The narrative structures of sensational headlines are "nutshell" narratives with rearranged climaxes. Sensational headlines tend to use specific speech acts, including: expose , generalize , warn. Sensationalism changes both the form and meaning of information by exaggerating certain elements, adding evaluative bias, and invoking cultural storylines. This can contribute to misinformation, polarization, or even hate speech. Sensationalism enables hate speech Sensationalism enables hate speech in different ways. Amplification happens when algorithms make sensational content more visible, allowing hate speech to reach a wider audience. For example, headlines like “Tide of refugees filling Europe WE’RE STUFFED" spread faster than neutral reporting. Normalization occurs when repeated exposure to dehumanizing language makes it seem factual. For example, consistently associating the word "criminals" with racial groups causes stereotypes to persist. Plausible deniability refers to the use of coded language that allows hate speech to hide behind sensationalism. HATE SPEECH Hate speech refers to any form of communication that attacks or uses negative or discriminatory language against a person or group based on characteristics such as religion, ethnicity, nationality, race, colour, descent, gender or other identity factors. Hate speech is often rooted and generates intolerance and hatred. In some contexts, it can be demeaning and divisive. Assimakopoulos Form a legal and linguistic perspective, intent is crucial. Hate speech becomes illegal incitement to hatred only when there is clear intent to provoke hostility or violence. Hate speech operates on two levels. For the targeted group , it causes psychological harm such as fear and alienation, and normalizes discrimination. For the mobilized audience , it reinforces group identity and encourages actions such as voting for extremist policies or violence. HEGEMONY Gramsci introduced the concept of hegemony , explaining that some social groups gain power not by force, but by getting the active consent of the population mainly through control of information and culture. Media help reinforce dominant ideologies and serve the interests of powerful social groups that control and finance them.
Implicature means expressing something indirectly through hints or context, such as tone, emojis, or images. In situations of censorship, it allows people to criticize without making direct statements. For example, South African newspapers used blacked-out text to protest apartheid-era censorship. SUBVERTISING Subvertising combines subversion and advertising, mocking advertising to criticize corporations and consumer culture. Techniques used include: irony , saying the opposite to expose hypocrisy; wordplay , using double meanings; double-voicing , mimicking corporate tone to reveal contradictions; and reframing , telling the same story from a different perspective. THE ATTENTION ECONOMY Today, we live in an attention economy , where the main product is not information but people’s attention. In digital media your attention is the real product. Human attention is limited and valuable, and platforms compete to capture and keep it. To catch and keep your attention, platforms use clickbait , with headlines that create curiosity; algorithmic feeds , which show personalized content to maximize engagement; notifications , designed to pull you back, often using FOMO (fear of missing out); and viral content, which spreads quickly by triggering emotions. Platforms like Instagram, YouTube, TikTok, and news sites design content and algorithms to keep you watching, scrolling, and clicking. PROPAGANDA Propaganda is different from persuasion. Its goal is to persuade people to accept an ideology and to socialize them into it. Propaganda presents issues from a specific point of view, encouraging us to act in certain ways and see ourselves as part of a group, a team that is better than others. In this way, propaganda creates consent. The difference between persuasion and propaganda is that persuasion tries to convince you of an idea; it may be biased but it is open about its purpose. Propaganda aims to indoctrinate you into an ideology and is often manipulative. TRUTH Defining truth in media is not easy. Some media products are not "true" in a literal sense but they can still express deeper truths. New genres, such as the mockumentary, blur the line between fiction and reality by mixing real and fictional elements. News is often biased because stories can be told from many perspectives, and in commercial broadcasting, some level of bias is unavoidable. News genres claim objectivity and neutrality, but they are inevitably shaped by editorial choices, source selection, and framing. Bias doesn’t necessarily mean it is untrue. POST-TRUTH Post-truth describes a situation where objective facts are less influential than emotions and personal beliefs. In practice, the opposition between truth and emotion often breaks down. Today, not only consent but also controversy is manufactured. Manufacturing controversy means creating debate around issues that are not really open to debate. This strategy aim to sow distrust in all facts. Debate and disagreement create doubt , and doubt makes people feel uncertain and mistrustful. A common example is the false connection between vaccines and autism. Bias vs. Truth Bias is different from falsehood. Bias is a selective presentation of facts or perspectives. It doesn’t necessarily mean the information is false, but that it’s incomplete or slanted. For example, a news story quoting only one side of a protest can still be accurate if it clearly states: "We were unable to reach the opposing group for comment." Transparency is key , bias becomes unethical when limitations are hidden or denied.
In contrast to propaganda, which deliberately distorts facts, biased reporting may simply lack full context. Confirmation Bias Bias means that we tend to believe information that aligns with our existing views and reject what contradicts them. In the media, people share, like, and remember stories that fit their beliefs. Social media algorithms reinforce this bias by showing users content they already agree with. This has real effects. For example, false equivalence occurs when media give equal importance to fringe views for balance, misleading audiences. Giving equal time to opposing positions on an issue is perceived as objective, but sometimes these opposing positions are not truly equivalent. Another example is truthiness , when people believe something is true simply because it feels right, not because of evidence. LOGICAL FALLACIES Logical fallacies are arguments that may seem reasonable on the surface, but contain flaws in reasoning. Examples of logical fallacies include: arguing that something is ‘right’ just because many people believe it; arguing that something is ‘wrong’ because the person who said it is flawed; arguing by repeating your position over and over until the opponent gets tired of arguing. A contemporary issue where logical fallacies often occur is climate change.
