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Historical Background
The Notion of Specialized Discourse
From
- (^) SCHOLARS FROM PRAGUE SCHOOL: who, in 1920-30 turned their attention on the Functional Style which characterize the technical and scientific language, totally separated from the everyday language. An approach which was at first conservative. The Studies on Register Analysis relied only on a lexical point of view.
- (^) 1960 - FORMALIST APPROACH : Thank’s to Chomsky Register Analysis , there was a shift from an uncontextualised point of view of the language to a Context, the interest was no longer on the technical language but on the discourse where the language is embedded.
- (^) 1970 - SOCIOLINGUISTIC AND TEXTUAL APPROACH , the studies were on the identification of different text genres in specialized language , linked to the set of structures required and the concept of sub-codes , it has also been made a distinction of 3 different genres of special language according to: Mode of communication , Topic of communication an d Language users involved.
The Issue of Terminology
- (^) MICROLANGUAGE : Characterized the richness in everyday language.
- (^) SPECIAL LANGUAGE: Language with specific rules and symbol deviating from the General One, with specific linguistic rules.
- (^) SPECIALIZED DISCOURSE: Language used by a specialized community across academic, technical, scientific, professional areas but it’s strictly connected to the General Language, ex: Flight control communication, and diverges from the general language not for specific linguistic rules (likewise Special Language) but it’s more specific. But there’s more than the Lexis
The Multi dimensional Nature of Specialized Discourse
Specialized Languages as General Language, contains a lot of varieties. Common Rules of S.D coexist with specific ones, each variety determinate the level of Specificity in language. There are 3 different situations in which a Specialist may address a topic relating his profession.
- The Specialist addresses to another Specialist to
- (^) Debate Issues in his disciplinary field **- Describe a Research
- Report Results
- Explain the equipment** This require a good amount of knowledge, the Author can frequently use Specialized terminology.
- Specialist adresses a Non-Specialist to
- (^) Explain Notion of their discipline This can be find in Academic texts books , instructions or Manuals, the Specialized terminology can be used but it have to be explained
- Specialist provide information of Technical Nature through everyday lexis The purpose is to reach out a wider audience, and it’s the case of newspapers , magazine articles presenting technical information. According to Widdowson These 3 Situations lead to 3 Level of Specificity in Language use 1. Scientific Exposition
- **Scientific Instructions
- Scientific Journalism** Some Authors add a 4th level that is Formalisation; that relies on non-verbal Language (formulas, tables, diagrams) Only the first two involve a truly specialist use of Language.
Tone of S.D is usually Neutral and l ack of emotions prevails when a test in informative rather than persuasive for ex in Adv
3. PRECISION Every term must be point out to its own concept. Ex. Statement 4. TRASPARENCY The possibility to access a term’s meaning through its surface form. Ex. Latin terms or Greek’s suffixes 5. CONCISINESS Concepts are expresses in the shortest possible form , which allows
- Omission of affixes : Saldo-Saldare
- Lexical Merging -two nouns in one single term (Informatics-Informatic + automatique)
- Acronyms and abbreviations (DOA Dead on Arrival) - Juxtaposition Some S.L contain Redundancy (a violation of the principle of Conciseness) for ex In Legal Language :
- Repetition of a concept through its opposite : I. “Last will and Testament” sound redundant, but the term testament is linked to real estate and Will to movables goods II. “To tell the Truth, the whole truth, not but the truth” sound redundant and misleading too, but this repeated formula is an century-old practice to specify the require of truth, used in Oath (giuramento) taken by witness in court Denotation Connotation Literal Meaning of a word, the dictionary definition Lion: for Zoologist lion is a specific Feline species The associations connected to a certain word or the emotional suggestions related to that word. Lion: is generally associated with quality as strength, pride.. But
6. CONSERVATISM
In 17-18 century Scientists wanted to refine specialized concept and replace existing and often imprecise or synonyms terms, with new ones, usually from Classical Language for a greater Monoreferentiality. For ex: In law old Formulas are preferred than new coined (whereas, witness, there-fore, ad-Hoc) or in business language, (bill, load..) Plain English Movement in 1970: was Born in relation to t he need of a Reform in Legal Language , considered obsolete and with archaic formulas, that may led to a misinterpretation by people, plain English focused on the need for a clear and simple English in all government regulations but the use of this old and misleading language still survive in because they gives power to lawyers or for hidden significance in legal procedures.
Relationship with General English
- (^) According to William- 1976 Ex: Terms such as Experience and Experiment were largely interchangeable until 1700 and then they have acquired a precise meaning. (Experience of one human being) (experiment, observation of an object..) Specialization of words borrowed from everyday language in 17/18 century due to the rapid technological and scientific development which made necessary to establish a specific lexis , the impact of scientific and technologic development was so sudden that the secondary meaning of these new lexis was added only later, in the last two centuries. So Now Specialized meaning prevails over a general interpretation. - Huges identifies 5 generation of borrowing from classical language in General English , for contrast to General Language, Greek and Latin is preferred. I. From Roman occupying England ( Latin influence) II. Religious terminology III. Classical borrowing from literature during Renaissance IV. From foreign to Native English speaker But Industry prevails over “create activity” Ex
Syntactic Features of Specialized Discourse
1. OMISSION OF PHRASAL ELEMENT
In order to make the phrase more concise , the omission of Phrasal element are very used (this respect the principle of Conciseness)
- The frequency depends of many factors, style, channel..
- (^) A phenomenon not only typical of English but even in Italian for ex: Egoista io? Senti **chi parla!
- EXPRESSIVE CONCISENESS** Apart from omission there are other Linguistic Device to make the phrase more Concise —Ex: Workable Metal (Metal which can be worked) 3. PREMODIFICATION Shorten Sentences that increase the noun-density in a phrase. Some strategies:
- (^) Use **adjectives obtained by affixes
- Transform the verb into a Present Particle
- When a passive form is present just keep the past participle**
- (^) Concise adverbs : So,Thus, Whereby **- Right-to left construction in English
- NOMINALIZATION** Involves the use of a Noun instead of a Verb, in order to focus on the Action or Process. S.D makes frequency use of Nominalization because :
- (^) Reflect the parallel process whereby Result have been obtained from the experiment
- (^) Puts concepts in a Thematic position , which allow an easier flow of information from new to given
- (^) Gives a Greater objectivity to Author’s Voice V. LEXICAL DENSITY Especially in Written Texts , when a discourse is planned more carefully and without excitation markers or redundancy conversely a more natural style is closer to spoken Language, which make the concept more explicit A consequence of a frequent Nominalization in S.D is the increase of
VI. SENTENCE COMPLEXITY
Due to the switch from verbal to Nominal Forms, Noun phrase are usually very complex, verbs can make the phrase easier. VII. SENTENCE LENGHT Written Specialized Texts are full of Longer Sentences than in General Texts, due to the higher number of items required to minimize Ambiguity or misunderstandings
8. USE OF VERBS TENSES Many Linguistics found out the use of Different Verbs Tenses in S.D than in General L.
- (^) Present Indicative tense is considered a Feature of S.D , not associated to the specificity of the topic but Rather to the Text’s special Communicative purpose.
- (^) The Prevail of the Present indicative Tense is not a result of the deliberate choice of the specialist but it depends on the fact that the communicative function in S.D usually call for the use of this Tense, due to the complexity of the text itself.
- (^) Past Participle is another tense very used in S.D 9. USE OF THE PASSIVE According to Barber analysis, 28% of verbs used in Scientific texts are in the passive Form and it’s due to:
- (^) The passive is the main device to depersonalized Discourse , which is one of the main feature of S.D
- (^) Emphasize the Effect of an Action rather than the Cause
- (^) The Agent is omitted
- (^) Passive is important to Thematize the process , facts or acts mentioned in the previous sentence
- (^) To identify a Given Information
2. TEXT GENRE
- (^) One of the Phenomena that much distinguish S.D is the norm of the construction of a Text Genre.
- The use of A Genre, produce certain expectations among their audience and whenever the rules are broke the text may be Rejected or misunderstood. An Example of Genre are the Business Letter : with an opening, a body, concussion and greetings, this genre doesn’t require creative efforts on writers because the use of standard Formulas. In 1700 there was a growth of Scientific and Academic Discoveries and this led to the need of a new specific Genre—The EXPERIMENTAL ESSAY 3. TEXT ORGANISATION Trimble —Develops a model for Specialized Texts on 4 Level
- (^) The main objective of the Discourse (Main Pragmatic Function) **- General Rhetoric Functions
- Specific Rhetoric Functions
- Rhetorical Devices involved** 4. SPEECH ACT One of the main problem of S. Texts is how to profile certain Speech Acts within each part of the Text.
- (^) A wedding , for example is valid only when the formula “I pronunce you Wife and Husband” is pronounced
- In a Courtroom, when the accused admit his guilt “I did it” 5. ARGUMENTATIVE PATTERNS
- (^) The main Purpose is t o convince readers that the Author’s perspective is the Right one , through argumentation For this reason a text is organized in a particular compositional plan , even in Hard Science and objective demonstration.
- (^) Authors use their linguistic skills and strategy to reach their claims, by:
- (^) Add value to their thesis and weaken ( indebolire) the others
- (^) Use an Highly Explicit Tone Observation-Analysis- Problem Deduction
- Convey personal Criticism , is the way an Author project his “Authorial Self”
- Once the Author has demonstrate the previous approaches, he point out where the
problem lies
- Personal or Passive voice rather than Active ones, even if the style is kept
personal by the use of for ex: “My opinion”
- Dealing with a topic in a new and original way.
- Often inventing new terms or redefine existing ones.
- Make their view more prospective rather than persuasive
- Appealing directly to Readers
- Use of Modal Verbs , to be more persuasive: Must be, should be.
The Development of Specialized Discourse in 17 Century
The need to use the English Language in Specialized Text caused a Debate over the 17 century England. It all Started with
- Galileo Pointed out the need of a new Specialized Language different from ordinary speech and based on mathematical principle
- Bacon , criticize the use of the language detached from the physical reality which is referred, there should be a direct link between Observation and Representation
- Another Criticism by scientist was on Polysemy (multiple meanings of the same word) which characterize most words in any languages, and which make the text ambiguous. Scientist cannot tollerate the uncertainty of meaning of an existing word —The Remedy is coining new terms and providing to them a strictly meaning.
- Another Criticism was against English Language , considered inadequate for scientific purpose, due to the limit amount of Vocabulary in English
The Development Of Specialized Lexis
The Realization that English language was inadequate for Specialized Discourse, made British Scientists to create New Terms. There are two principle in coining two terms
1. Using Resources from the Native Tongue; Give a specialized meaning to an already existing word, or Invent/Form a New One. Ex: Netwon’s use of the Word “Gravity” which took a new meaning thanks to him, then, this new meaning gave rise to new worlds, linked to the first, such as Gravitation
The Evolution of Syntax in Specialized Discourse
17 century also showed interest in the development in syntax features of Specialized Text. Halliday Analysis shown certain syntactic changes took place in that period ; according to 2 Theorems by Newton:
- Sentence were quite long
- Verbs started to be similar to the modern Scientific English
- Sentences were structurally simple , with few or no subordinates
- Use of Nouns deriving from Verb - Nominalization
- Tendency towards depersonalization
- More informations in the same sentence, guaranteeing a better flow of Discourse Conclusion Summary: THE DEVELOPMENT OF S.D in the 17 century The 17 century provided a **great increase in Lexis
- Formation of new words**
- (^) Addiction of meaning to terms already in use by compounding or affixation
- (^) Borrowing from other languages- Classical Languages provided many affixes and combing form
- From a Syntactic point of view
- (^) From Newton’s theorems- for ex Nominalization This increase was obtained trough
Origins of The Experimental Essay
The need of a new Genre become an increasing need of Scientist in the 17 Century. In the past , Natural Philosophers continued writing their works rely on past authority , usually starting out from a citation of an ancient or medieval philosopher and demonstrate the correctness or incorrectness. Many Philosophers in the past wanted to provide explanations and theories before having enough evidence to provide an experimental approach. But New philosophers wanted to based their works on direct experience and personal observation. Another important aspect of the New Scientists approach is the need for both the procedure and the Result. To carry out their communicative tasks, Scientist need a new Expository Genre , thus they were born:
**- The Dialogue
Main Features of Experimental Essay (in Early Modern English)
1. BREVITY (Unlike treatise and Dialogue, essay is shorten length) - Conciseness : Researchers report:
- Report Single Experiment
- Sentence were as coincise as possibile , with no space to unnecessary details
- Many Details are reported in the clearest way in order to understand the report
clearly, not only to arrive at the conclusion.
- This criteria of Conciseness is subordinate to the higher principle of Clarity
- The purpose of Scientists was to contribute to the advancement of science, not to
gain any personal advantage The treatise and Dialogue at later time were considered inadequate for the formulation of hypothesis This need of a shorter form offers to the Scientists the opportunity to report Briefly experiment , procedures , Result and any personal comment , so it was born an Essay for Scientific purposes: The EXPERIMENTAL ESSAY
5. OBJECTIVITY
- Honesty of the Writer
- (^) Reports Events faithfully , sincerely, writer’s opinion and conclusion
- (^) Reports Narrations events in an objective way , the essay also includes mention of experimenter’s reaction **- Higher degree of Officialness
- Reports Facts and the consideration on them.** Conlusion: The Evolution of Experimental Essay Experimental Essay was widely accepted by scientific community in 17 century ADVANTAGES
- (^) Increase in circulation of Scientific Journal —The first was Philosophical Transaction 1665 - Influenced the Early Modern English language
- (^) Others Specialized Writing disappea r, such as Dialogue, while The Experimental Essay, survived
- Genre most used by Scientists
- (^) More cohesive Structure , which respect: (^) *stating of purpose *describe apparatus *phenomenon to be investigated *Narration of Experiment *Record of the Result *Theorical Implication
Specialized Discourse in Philosophical Transaction
P.T Was the First Scientific Journa l, first published in the 1665, used for the Spread of Specialized news. The methods used by the specialized Community to spread news and discoveries of the community itself started thanks to the Royal Society in London , founded in 1662
Early Forms of Specialized News Disseminations
1. COMMUNAL CORRESPONDENCE
A relevant Role of News disseminations was played by the exchange of Letters. Letters are now used not only for personal purpose, but often had a wider and official scope. Letters exchange started thanks the introduction of postal Services, who stimulate the Growth of a real community of Expert and provided a great Exchange of news. Letters often conveyed information about the research by individuals or groups, addressed not only to a single experiment but to teams of researcher working.
2. THE MINUTES OF ROYAL SOCIETY Another news dissemination were the minutes of the meeting of Royal Society and The notes taken at Meeting Reporting the demonstration. 3. EARLY SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATION The scientific journal detached itself from communal correspondence, and the diffusion of other periodic publication increased. The first scientific Journal was the French “Le Journal des Scivants” (1665) and two months later , Philosophical Transaction published by the Royal Society in London
Features of the Philosophical Transaction
P.t was meant to serve as a Newsletter , in favor to spread Specialized News within the Royal Society and others circles. News publication was meant to arouse the interest of new Minds in specialized matters, and promote the scientific research according to the criteria of the Royal Society.
- Even if the Author is a specialist, he’s aware to the different degree of specialization of the Readers, and often provide to explain the Specialized terms or give an equivalent. II. EXPERIMENTAL ACCOUNT Contained no abstract but very long title, describing the content. Often proceeded by an Introduction by the Editor. Bazerman’s first period articles , consisted on the mere reports of Events, short articles and focused on the single experiment, o nly later began the tendency to argue over the Result. The Experimental Account — started from the observation of a Natural phenomena and great care in reporting Events faithfully and sincerely, while expressing the Author’s opinion in the Conclusion , based to the Fact, making the Narration more authentic. III. LETTERS Continued to be published in the S. Journals They were easily distinguishable from News Items and Experimental Account as they open with a Salutation , and they were frequently followed by polite reference to the Editor or to the Royal Society.
- Tone is Polite
- (^) S tyle is more “Civil” and resemble a conversation, because the members of the community know each-others directly or indirectly IV. BOOK REVIEWS Book Reviews increase in Number and there’s a section dedicated to it at the end of the P.T. Most Book Reviews consisted of a summary of the contents of the book with a little evaluation on the Part of the Reviewer. Conclusion: P.T Scientific Journal evolved from the Genre of Communal correspondence for the Spread of Specialized News. The first Aim was to Spread Scientific Information and increase the publication in Specialized Journal , of Specialized News and discoveries. Early Scientific publication contribute in the diffusion of Specialized Discourse and also offer a Forum, These publications helps scholarship and encourage scientist to publicize their work, in order for the growth of science itself.
Formation of Lexis in the Computer Science
Due to the widespread of Computer use. Lexis of Computer Science is another Formation of New Terms.
Main Features of Lexis in Computer Science
1. SPECIALIZATION AND BORROWING
I. Included all words borrowed from General Language to which a new specific meaning is given , for ex: Hardware, Program, Disk (We notice the supremacy of American industry)
- (^) Use of Metaphors ex: Address, memory, brain, store, menu, home, mouse, spamming.
- (^) In giving a new Meaning, also the form has been modified , for ex: Mouse, whose plural is irregular in General Language (Mice) but in Computer Language is not ( Mouses) or E- mail used as a countable noun and even as a Verb in Computer Language. II. And the borrowing from others Fields , for ex: Mathematics, Physic, Engineering, electronic, and also from the field of Linguistic (for ex: Syntax, Statement) 2. NEOLOGY When words cannot be borrowed from General English Language or other specialized Fields or languages. So New Computers Science terms are created on the Purpose. Process frequently used - Derivation By the use of Common Suffixes and Prefixes , present in General English. For ex: Auto- code, Mega-byte, Pre-Edit. - Analogy A new word is formed by being modeled on an already existing Lexeme. For Ex: Software, created with the analogy of hardware, the word ware can be found in many others deviated forms (Groupware, Vaporware) - Similes Coin a new expression refers to the aspect, or the category of an Item. Ex: Banana Plug - Compound The result of the process of Compression of various terms into the same Syntagm. Ex: Programmer computer, become computer program. Compound often include 2 words or a group of 2,3,4,5 into a single word , in order to make the word shorte r, For ex: modem (modulation) or info-center (Information center)
