Scarica Swift, Romantic age, William Blake e più Sintesi del corso in PDF di Inglese solo su Docsity!
Jonathan Swift Jonathan Swift was born in 1667 in Dublin, although his parents were English. He received his education in Dublin, but his family moved back to England during the Glorious Revolution in 1688. During this period Swift became the secretary of William Temple, a Whig politician who encouraged him to start writing satirical works. Among Swift’s earliest important satires were The Battle of the Books, which discussed the debate between ancient and modern literature. In this work Swift supported Temple’s defence of the classical authors and mocked the arrogance and self-satisfaction of modern scholars, critics and poets. Another major satire was A Tale of a Tub, which attacked the religious conflicts of the time, criticising both the superstition of Catholics and the fanaticism of Protestant Dissenters. In 1694 Swift returned to Ireland, where he became an Anglican priest. Later, in 1713, he was appointed Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin. He lived there for about thirty years and strongly opposed the Whig government in London, defending both Ireland and the Anglican Church. Despite being an Anglican clergyman, he gave one third of his income to the Catholic poor. For some years Swift wrote relatively little, but later he began publishing pamphlets denouncing the injustices suffered by Ireland. One of the most famous was The Drapier's Letters, written under the pseudonym M.B. Drapier. In these texts Swift attacked the British government’s plan to introduce a new coinage that would have increased poverty in Ireland. In 1726 Swift published his masterpiece, Gulliver's Travels, whose full title is Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World. Later, in 1729, he wrote another famous satire, A Modest Proposal, in which he ironically suggested that poor Irish families should sell their children as food for the rich to solve the problem of poverty. Swift’s last years were marked by mental decline, and he died in 1745. Swift as a controversial writer Swift is considered one of the most controversial writers in English literature. Critics have described him in very different ways: as a misanthrope, a man with a pessimistic view of humanity, or alternatively as someone deeply concerned with mankind. His works show that he was strongly interested in politics and society, and his political attitude was mainly conservative. Unlike many of his contemporaries, Swift did not share the optimism of the eighteenth century or the pride many English writers felt about England. He famously described human beings as “an animal capable of reason.” For Swift, reason should be used with moderation. Excessive reliance on reason can become irrational and lead to errors of judgement. For this reason he emphasised the importance of common sense. The literary tools that best suited his ideas were irony and satire. Swift often used parody, combining a simple and clear style with ironic intentions. Gulliver's Travels Date and settings The novel was printed in London in 1726, although most of it had probably been written between 1721 and 1725. The story is structured around four voyages made by the protagonist Lemuel Gulliver, and each voyage takes place in a different setting. During his first voyage, Gulliver’s ship is wrecked and he arrives in Lilliput, a country inhabited by extremely small people, the tallest of whom are only about six inches high. In this society Gulliver appears as a giant, and he plays the role of a benevolent protector of a population that nevertheless has exaggerated ideas about its own importance.
In his second voyage, Gulliver reaches Brobdingnag, where the inhabitants are giants. In this situation Gulliver himself becomes extremely small and vulnerable, similar to a Lilliputian. In the third voyage, Gulliver visits Laputa, a floating island inhabited by absurd scientists, philosophers and astronomers. Through this episode Swift satirises the scientific community of Great Britain. During the fourth voyage, Gulliver reaches the land of the Houyhnhnms, rational horses who rule over the Yahoos, creatures that resemble human beings but are stupid, greedy and corrupt. Through these settings Swift criticises both human nature in general and British society in particular. Plot The novel is divided into four books, each corresponding to one of Gulliver’s voyages. Book 1: Gulliver leaves Bristol on 4 May 1699, but after six months his ship is wrecked in the South Pacific. He reaches Lilliput and falls asleep. The tiny inhabitants tie him up and later transport his huge body to their capital, where he is kept in an unused temple. Gulliver gradually learns their language and customs and eventually gains the king’s favour. After many amusing adventures he finally returns to England. Book 2: In 1702 Gulliver sails again, intending to go to India, but he lands in Brobdingnag. Here the inhabitants are giants and Gulliver becomes the king’s curiosity and is carried around in a cage. The king questions him about European government and politics. Eventually a giant bird lifts Gulliver’s cage and drops it into the ocean, where he is rescued by a passing ship and returns home. Book 3: Gulliver travels to the flying island of Laputa, whose movement is controlled by magnetism. The inhabitants are strange scientists and philosophers. Gulliver visits the capital, Lagado, where he sees ridiculous scientific experiments performed in the academy. Eventually he is left in Japan and manages to return to England. Book 4: In his final voyage Gulliver discovers the land of the Houyhnhnms. These intelligent horses live according to reason and rule over the Yahoos, creatures resembling human beings but characterised by greed, lust and filth. Gulliver admires the rational and moral superiority of the horses and begins to feel ashamed of being human. When the horses decide to expel him, he returns to England but cannot tolerate human society anymore. He prefers to live in a stable among horses that remind him of the noble Houyhnhnms. The character of Gulliver Swift presents Gulliver as a typical European man. He is middle-aged, well educated and sensible. He is also a careful observer, devoted to his family and responsible in managing his business. Like Robinson Crusoe, he represents the practical seamen who helped England dominate the seas. At the beginning of the story Gulliver strongly supports European culture and values. However, his voyages gradually transform him. During the first voyage he begins to develop some critical awareness, although this disappears when he returns home and easily adapts again to European life. In the second voyage his critical awareness becomes stronger, although he still defends European civilisation. After returning home, he needs more time to readjust. In the fourth voyage, however, the transformation is complete. When he returns to England he cannot accept human society anymore.
The Americans organised an army led by George Washington to fight against the stronger and better-trained British army. On 4 July 1776, in Philadelphia, the Congress, composed of representatives from thirteen colonies, signed the Declaration of Independence, largely written by Thomas Jefferson, a lawyer from Virginia. The Declaration stated not only that the colonies were a new nation, but also that all men had a natural right to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” It affirmed that governments could rule only with “the consent of the governed.” In 1781, the British army was defeated at the Battle of Yorktown. In 1783, Britain officially recognised the independence of the former colonies with the Treaty of Versailles. America became a symbol of a “new start,” a land with virgin territory where people from different European countries could form a new race. In 1787, the new republic adopted a federal constitution, and in 1789 George Washington became the first President. Colonists who remained loyal to Britain moved to Canada. After the loss of America, George III experienced difficulties with his ministers. In 1783, he asked William Pitt the Younger to become Prime Minister. Pitt won a majority in the election the following year and remained in office for eighteen years. During this time, he tried to simplify the financial system, reduce the national debt, and promote profitable trade and finance. He supported Adam Smith’s theory of laissez-faire, presented in The Wealth of Nations (1776), which encouraged free trade, economic self-interest, and emphasised the division of labour. In Ireland, in 1791, Catholics and Protestants founded the Society of United Irishmen with the aim of forming their own republic. In 1798, they organised an uprising, but it was crushed by British troops. To prevent further rebellions, Pitt allowed Irish representatives to sit at Westminster. In 1801, the Act of Union united Ireland and Britain to form the new United Kingdom. The Irish flag was added to the existing flag to create the Union Jack, which is still used today. FAI ADAM SMITH Industrial revolution At the end of the 18th century, England experienced important economic changes that transformed it from an agricultural country into an industrial one. The origins of this transformation go back to the period after the Black Death, when living standards improved. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, the population increased and agriculture became more efficient thanks to the enclosure of fields, better soil management and selective breeding of animals. At the same time, economic activity began to diversify, especially in the production of woollen cloth. People started to buy more goods, such as furniture and clothing, and consumption also increased in goods for pleasure like tea, coffee, sugar and tobacco. This growing demand marked the beginning of the industrial revolution, with cotton becoming the most important sector. During the 18th century, many technological innovations improved productivity. In 1712, Thomas Newcomen created a steam engine used to pump water from mines. Around 1764, James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny, which made spinning faster. In 1769, James Watt developed a more efficient steam engine, and in 1787 Edmund Cartwright invented a power loom. These inventions made production faster and goods cheaper.
Industrialisation changed the geography of England. Factories were built near coalfields in the Midlands and the North, and many people moved from the countryside to these areas. New towns, often built quickly, grew around factories. However, life for workers was very hard. Industrial cities were overcrowded, polluted and lacked basic services like clean water and sanitation. Workers lived in poor conditions, and women and children were often employed because they were cheaper and easier to control. Children worked in dangerous environments such as mines and factories. At first, there were no regulations, only later the government began to introduce laws to improve working conditions and public health, after pressure from reformers. Work also changed: instead of depending on seasons, workers followed the strict rhythm of machines. They worked long hours, about 65–70 hours a week, with little rest. At the same time, food became more expensive and mortality rates increased. Transport also improved thanks to rivers and canals, making it easier to move goods. Coal and iron became essential resources, and the government supported industrial growth through patent laws and trade policies. French revolution In the late 1780s, George III began to suffer from serious mental illness. By 1810 he was no longer able to rule, and in 1811 his son, the future George IV, became Prince Regent. This period is known as the Regency (1811–1820). At the same time, in France, the ideas of equality promoted by the Enlightenment led to the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. In 1792, the monarchy was abolished and France became a republic. However, in 1793, during the Reign of Terror, thousands of people, including the royal family, were executed. Meanwhile, tensions between France and Britain increased. In 1793, France declared war on Britain and Holland. Although the French navy was weak, their army was very successful on land, largely thanks to the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte. By 1797, he had defeated many European countries and was effectively ruling France as a military dictator. Despite French victories on land, Britain maintained supremacy at sea. The most important naval leader was Horatio Nelson, who won a decisive victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, but he died during the battle. On land, British forces led by Arthur Wellesley were successful in Portugal. After the failure of his invasion of Russia, Napoleon’s power weakened, and he surrendered in 1814. He briefly returned to power during the Hundred Days, but was finally defeated by Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo. The wars had serious economic consequences for Britain. When soldiers returned home, they found a country affected by poverty, high taxes and industrial changes. Food prices, especially bread, increased, causing riots. In factories, workers known as Luddites destroyed machines that had replaced their jobs. The government reacted with repression, introducing laws that allowed arrests without trial, banned trade unions and limited freedom of speech. A tragic event occurred in 1819 at St Peter’s Fields in Manchester, where a peaceful protest led by Henry Hunt was violently attacked. This event became known as the Peterloo Massacre. After the death of George III in 1820, George IV became king. He was famous for his luxurious lifestyle and was called the “First Gentleman of Europe.” He influenced architecture with exotic styles, but he showed little interest in political reform. In the late 1820s, some important reforms began. In 1824, trade unions were legalised. In 1829, Robert Peel created the Metropolitan Police.
A further development was Ossianic poetry, linked to the growing interest in simple and primitive life and in popular traditions. These poems were attributed to the legendary figure of Ossian, an ancient Gaelic warrior, and were collected by James Macpherson in Fragments of Ancient Poetry. Although their authenticity was questioned, they became very popular across Europe. Their success was due to their strong sense of melancholy and suffering, often connected to war or unhappy love, and to their descriptions of wild and dark landscapes. Another important group was the Graveyard School, whose poetry was characterised by a melancholic tone and settings such as cemeteries, ruins and stormy landscapes. One of the most famous works is Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Thomas Gray. However, this trend had already begun with Edward Young and his work Night Thoughts on Life, Death, and Immortality. In this poetry, the tomb became an important symbol for reflecting on death and immortality. Finally, William Blake can be considered a forerunner of Romanticism because of his attention to social issues and his personal and symbolic style. Romanticism The term Romanticism comes from the French word romance, which originally referred to the vernacular languages derived from Latin and to literary works written in those languages. The adjective “romantic” first appeared in English in the 17th century, meaning something fantastic or unreal. During the 18th century, it was used to describe picturesque landscapes, and later it came to refer to the feelings that landscapes create in the observer. Romanticism did not develop in the same way in all European countries, but depended on different cultural, social and political contexts. In Germany, Romantic ideas were anticipated by the movement Sturm und Drang. Later, they were developed by Friedrich Schlegel and August Wilhelm Schlegel, and published in the journal Athenäum in 1798. In the same year, an important event for English Romanticism was the publication of Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The Preface written by Wordsworth in the 1800 edition is considered the manifesto of English Romantic poetry. In France, Romantic ideas spread thanks to De l’Allemagne by Madame de Staël. In Italy, the beginning of Romanticism is usually linked to Lettera semiseria di Grisostomo al suo figliolo (1816) by Giovanni Berchet. William Blake William Blake was born in London in 1757 into a poor family and remained poor all his life. When he was young, he trained as an engraver, a skill that strongly influenced his artistic work. He later studied at the Royal Academy of Arts. As an artist, he rejected traditional rules like perspective and proportion, developing a very original style based on the power of imagination. He illustrated works by John Milton, the Bible, and the Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri. Blake was also a political and religious thinker. He supported the ideals of the French Revolution, but later became critical of the negative effects of industrialisation on human life. He believed that artists should act as protectors of imagination and the human spirit. The Bible was the main influence on his thought, as he saw it as a complete vision of the world. His poetry is considered early Romantic because he rejected Neoclassical rules. He believed that imagination was more important than reason and that true art comes from inner
visions, not from observing nature. He also invented “illuminated printing”, a technique that combined text and images on the same page. Main works Blake’s most accessible works are Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794). In Songs of Innocence, the speaker is a shepherd inspired by a child. The poems celebrate purity, joy and harmony. Symbols such as lambs, flowers and children represent a state of innocence, seen as happiness, freedom and imagination. The language is simple and musical. In Songs of Experience, written during a darker historical period, the speaker becomes a bard, a more critical and prophetic figure. The tone is more pessimistic, and the imagery is darker. These poems are meant to be read together with those of Innocence, as many form pairs that offer different perspectives on the same themes. For Blake, innocence and experience do not replace each other but exist together. Blake also wrote prophetic works such as The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, where he presents Hell and Satan as symbols of energy and freedom, while Heaven represents law and authority. Other works like Visions of the Daughters of Albion criticise social and sexual oppression, especially of women, while America: A Prophecy and Europe: A Prophecy deal with political change. Imagination and the role of the poet Blake believed that imagination is the true way to understand reality. He called it the “Divine Vision”, the ability to go beyond the material world and see deeper truths. According to him, God, the child and the poet share this power. Because of this, the poet becomes a kind of prophet, able to reveal truth and criticise society. Social vision Blake was deeply concerned with social injustice. He supported equality and opposed slavery. At first, he saw revolution as a necessary force for change, but later he focused on the negative effects of industrial society, such as exploitation and materialism. In his works, he showed sympathy for oppressed people like children, workers, prostitutes, orphans and soldiers. Style and symbolism Blake’s poetry has a simple structure but uses a complex system of symbols. Important symbols include the child, the father and Christ, representing innocence, experience and a higher state of understanding. His language is clear and rhythmic, often using repetition to strengthen meaning. Blake’s philosophy: complementary opposites Blake’s Christianity was not traditional or moralistic. He believed in a spiritual world but criticised the Church for creating divisions in human consciousness. Instead of a dualistic view, he proposed the idea of “complementary opposites”, such as good and evil, reason and imagination, cruelty and kindness. Unlike the traditional idea that people move from innocence to experience, Blake believed that these two states exist at the same time. Progress comes from the tension between them. These opposites coexist not only in human beings but also in God, who can represent both love and innocence, and energy and violence.
