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3. INTERACTIONS WITH FRIENDS
By Tom W. Cadwallader and Mary Wagner
The social activities of youth outside of the classroom are crucial to their development. For
many years, theory and research (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979) have supported the important role
of social interactions with peers, friends, parents, siblings, relatives, and others in the dynamic
process of social adaptation and change. Friendships take on particular importance during
adolescence, when teens detach themselves in some ways from their families (Raffaelli &
Duckett, 1989) and use peers for some types of support that previously were provided by family
members (Zetlin & Murtaugh, 1988). The degree of success in forming positive peer
relationships can have important implications for youth’s broader social adjustment (Asher &
Coie, 1990; Bukowski, Newcomb, & Hartup, 1996; Parker & Asher, 1987).
Several dimensions come into play in understanding the role of friendships in the lives of
youth, including the number of friends, their age and gender, and the quality and stability of the
relationships. Friendships can be fluid and short-lived in early adolescence (Neckerman, 1992).
As children enter their teen years, their feelings, beliefs, expectations, and attitudes can change,
and friendships can grow and change accordingly. Throughout this process, youth appear to
benefit from the opportunity to experience a variety of relationships, and having multiple
contexts for social interaction is a central feature of positive social development.
Although having friends may be crucial to healthy development, some kinds of disabilities
can be challenges to making and interacting with friends. For example, a hearing impairment
can limit interactions with those who cannot use or understand manual communication. A visual
impairment could limit the kinds of activities youth can engage in with friends. Autism and
some kinds of behavioral disabilities can restrict or in other ways challenge social interaction
with peers.
To understand the friendships of youth with disabilities1, parents were asked to report how
often youth interact with friends by getting together outside of school,2 receiving telephone calls
from them,3 and being invited to other youth’s social activities.4 Parents also were asked
whether youth use the Internet to communicate with others through chat rooms or e-mail.5
Although parents' responses indicate whether particular interactions with friends occur and, in
1 Analyses similar to those reported in this chapter also have been conducted for elementary and middle school
students with disabilities as part of the Special Education Elementary Longitudinal Study (SEELS) and are reported
in Cadwallader & Wagner (2002a).
2 Parents were asked, “During the past 12 months, about how many days a week did (youth) usually get together
with friends, outside of school and organized activities or groups?”
3 Parents were asked, “During the past 12 months, how often have his/her friends called on the phone? Would you
say never; less than once a month; a few times a month, but not every week; about once a week; or several days a
week?”
4 Parents were asked, “During the past 12 months, has he/she been invited by other students to social activities, like
over to their home or to a party?”
5 Parents who reported they have a computer at home were asked, “How frequently does (youth) interact with
others by using e-mail or taking part in chat rooms? Would you say several times a day, about once a day, several
times a week, once a week, or less often?”
