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Alberto Leon-Garcia & Indra Widjaja
Fundamental Concepts and Key Architectures
- 1 Communication Networks and Services Preface vii - 1.1 Networks and Services - 1.2 Approaches to Network Design - 1.2.1 Network Functions andNetwork Topology - 1.2.2 Message, Packet, andCircuit Switching - 1.2.3 Telegraph Networks andMessage Switching - 1.2.4 Telephone Networks andCircuit Switching - 1.2.5 The Internet andPacket Switching - 1.2.6 Discussion on Switching Approaches - 1.3 Key Factors in Communication Network Evolution - 1.3.1 Role of Technology - 1.3.2 Role of Regulation - 1.3.3 Role of the Market - 1.3.4 Role of Standards - 1.4 Book Overview - Checklist of Important Terms - Further Reading - Problems
- 2 Applications and Layered Architectures - 2.1 Examples of Layering - 2.2 The OSI Reference Model - 2.2.1 Uni®edView of Layers, Protocols, andServices - 2.2.2 The Seven-Layer Model - 2.3 Overview of TCP/IP Architecture - 2.3.1 TCP/IP Protocol: How the Layers Work Together
- ^2.4 The Berkeley API - 2.4.1 Socket System Calls - 2.4.2 Network Utility Functions
- ^2.5 Application Protocols and TCP/IP Utilities - 2.5.1 Telnet - 2.5.2 File Transfer Protocol - 2.5.3 IP Utilities - Summary - Checklist of Important Terms - Further Reading - Problems
- 3 Digital Transmission Fundamentals
- 3.1 Digital Representation of Information
- 3.1.1 Binary Representations of Different Information Types
- 3.1.2 Network Requirements of Different Information Types
- 3.2 Why Digital Communications?
- 3.2.1 Basic Properties of Digital Transmission Systems
- 3.3 Characterization of Communication Channels
- 3.3.1 Frequency Domain Characterization
- 3.3.2 Time Domain Characterization
- 3.4 Fundamental Limits in Digital Transmission
- 3.4.1 The Nyquist Signaling Rate
- 3.4.2 The Shannon Channel Capacity
- 3.5 Line Coding
- 3.6 Modems and Digital Modulation
- 3.6.1 Signal Constellations and Telephone Modem Standards
- 3.7 Properties of Media and Digital Transmission Systems
- 3.7.1 TwistedPair
- 3.7.2 Coaxial Cable
- 3.7.3 Optical Fiber
- 3.7.4 Radio Transmission
- 3.7.5 InfraredLight
- 3.8 Error Detection and Correction
- 3.8.1 Error Detection
- 3.8.2 Two-Dimensional Parity Checks
- 3.8.3 Internet Checksum
- 3.8.4 Polynomial Codes
- 3.8.5 Standardized Polynomial Codes
- 3.8.6 Error Detecting Capability of a Polynomial Code
- ^3.8.7 Linear Codes
- ^3.8.8 Error Correction
- Summary
- Checklist of Important Terms
- Further Reading
- Problems
- Appendix 3A: Asynchronous Data Transmission
- Appendix 3B: Fourier Series
- 4 Transmission Systems and the Telephone Network
- 4.1 Multiplexing
- 4.1.1 Frequency-Division Multiplexing
- 4.1.2 Time-Division Multiplexing
- 4.2 SONET
- 4.2.1 SONET Multiplexing
- 4.2.2 SONET Frame Structure
- 4.3 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
- 4.4 Circuit Switches
- 4.4.1 Space-Division Switches
- ^4.4.2 Time-Division Switches
- 4.5 The Telephone Network
- 4.5.1 Transmission Facilities
- 4.5.2 End-to-End Digital Services
- 4.6 Signaling
- 4.6.1 Signaling System #7 Architecture
- 4.7 Traf®cand Overload Control in Telephone Networks
- 4.7.1 Concentration
- 4.7.2 Routing Control
- 4.7.3 OverloadControls
- 4.8 Cellular Telephone Networks
- 4.9 Satellite Cellular Networks
- Summary
- Checklist of Important Terms
- Further Reading
- Problems
- 5 Peer-to-Peer Protocols - 5.1 Peer-to-Peer Protocols and Service Models - 5.1.1 Service Models - 5.1.2 Endto EndRequirements andAdaptation Functions - 5.1.3 Endto Endversus Hop by Hop - 5.2 ARQ Protocols - 5.2.1 Stop-and-Wait ARQ - 5.2.2 Go-Back-N ARQ - 5.2.3 Selective Repeat ARQ - 5.2.4 Transmission Ef®ciency of ARQ Protocols - 5.3 Other Adaptation Functions - 5.3.1 Sliding Window Flow Control - 5.3.2 Timing Recovery for Synchronous Services - 5.3.3 Reliable Stream Service - 5.4 Data Link Controls - 5.4.1 HDLC Data Link Control - 5.4.2 Point-to-Point Protocol
- ^5.5 Link Sharing using Packet Multiplexers - 5.5.1 Statistical Multiplexing - Speech 5.5.2 Speech Interpolation andthe Multiplexing of Packetized - Summary - Checklist of Important Terms - Further Reading - Problems
- Protocols 6 Local Area Networks and Medium Access Control
- 6.1 Multiple Access Communications
- 6.2 Local Area Networks
- 6.2.1 LAN Structure
- 6.2.2 The Medium Access Control Sublayer
- 6.2.3 The Logical Link Control Layer
- 6.3 Random Access
- 6.3.1 ALOHA
- 6.3.2 SlottedALOHA
- 6.3.3 CSMA
- 6.3.4 CSMA-CD
- 6.4 Scheduling Approaches to Medium Access Control
- 6.4.1 Reservation Systems
- 6.4.2 Polling
- 6.4.3 Token-Passing Rings
- Control 6.4.4 Comparison of Scheduling Approaches to Medium Access
- Access Controls 6.4.5 Comparison of Random Access and Scheduling Medium
- ^6.5 Channelization - 6.5.1 FDMA - 6.5.2 TDMA - 6.5.3 CDMA - 6.5.4 Channelization in Telephone Cellular Networks - Traf®c 6.5.5 Performance of Channelization Techniques with Bursty - 6.6 LAN Standards - 6.6.1 Ethernet andIEEE 802.3 LAN Standard - 6.6.2 Token Ring andIEEE 802.5 LAN Standard - 6.6.3 FDDI - 6.6.4 Wireless LANs andIEEE 802.11 Standard - 6.7 LAN Bridges - 6.7.1 Transparent Bridges - 6.7.2 Source Routing Bridges - 6.7.3 Mixed-Media Bridges - Summary - Checklist of Important Terms - Further Reading - Problems
- 7 Packet-Switching Networks - 7.1 Network Services and Internal Network Operation - 7.2 Packet Network Topology - 7.3 Datagrams and Virtual Circuits - 7.3.1 Structure of Switch/Router - 7.3.2 Connectionless Packet Switching - 7.3.3 Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching
- 7.4 Routing in Packet Networks
- 7.4.1 Routing Algorithm Classi®cation
- 7.4.2 Routing Tables
- 7.4.3 Hierarchical Routing
- 7.4.4 Link State versus Distance Vector Routing
- 7.5 Shortest Path Algorithms
- 7.5.1 The Bellman-FordAlgorithm
- 7.5.2 Dijkstra's Algorithm
- 7.5.3 Other Routing Approaches
- 7.6 ATM Networks
- 7.7 Traf®cManagement and QoS
- 7.7.1 FIFO andPriority Queues
- 7.7.2 Fair Queueing
- 7.8 Congestion Control
- 7.8.1 Open-Loop Control
- 7.8.2 Closed-Loop Control
- Summary
- Checklist of Important Terms
- Further Reading
- Problems
- 8 TCP/IP
- 8.1 The TCP/IP Architecture
- 8.2 The Internet Protocols
- 8.2.1 IP Packet
- 8.2.2 IP Addressing
- 8.2.3 Subnet Addressing
- 8.2.4 IP Routing
- 8.2.5 Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)
- 8.2.6 Address Resolution
- 8.2.7 Reverse Address Resolution
- 8.2.8 Fragmentation andReassembly
- 8.2.9 ICMP: Error andControl Messages
- 8.3 IPv6
- 8.3.1 Header Format
- 8.3.2 Network Addressing
- 8.3.3 Extension Headers
- 8.4 User Datagram Protocol
- 8.5 Transmission Control Protocol
- 8.5.1 TCP Reliable Stream Service
- 8.5.2 TCP Operation
- 8.5.3 TCP Protocol
- 8.6 DHCP and Mobile IP
- 8.6.1 Dynamic Host Con®guration Protocol
- 8.6.2 Mobile IP
- 8.7 Internet Routing Protocols
- 8.7.1 Routing Information Protocol
- 8.7.2 Open Shortest Path First
- 8.7.3 Border Gateway Protocol
- 8.8 Multicast Routing
- 8.8.1 Reverse-Path Broadcasting
- 8.8.2 Internet Group Management Protocol
- 8.8.3 Reverse-Path Multicasting
- 8.8.4 Distance-Vector Multicast Routing Protocol
- Summary
- Checklist of Important Terms
- Further Reading
- Problems
- 9 ATM Networks
- 9.1 Why ATM?
- 9.2 BISDN Reference Model
- 9.3 ATM Layer
- 9.3.1 ATM Cell Header
- 9.3.2 Virtual Connections
- 9.3.3 QoS Parameters
- 9.3.4 Traf®c Descriptors
- 9.3.5 ATM Service Categories
- Traf®c Management 9.3.6 Traf®c Contracts, Connection Admission Control, and
- 9.4 ATM Adaptation Layer
- 9.4.1 AAL1
- 9.4.2 AAL2
- 9.4.3 AAL3/4
- 9.4.4 AAL5
- 9.4.5 Signaling AAL
- 9.4.6 Applications, AALs, andATM Service Categories
- 9.5 ATM Signaling
- 9.5.1 ATM Addressing
- 9.5.2 UNI Signaling
- 9.5.3 PNNI Signaling
- 9.6 PNNI Routing
- Summary
- Checklist of Important Terms
- Further Reading
- Problems
- 10 Advanced Network Architectures
- 10.1 IP Forwarding Architectures
- 10.2 Overlay Model
- 10.2.1 Classical IP Over ATM
- 10.2.2 LANE
- 10.2.3 NHRP
- 10.2.4 MPOA
- 10.3 MPLS
- 10.3.1 Fundamentals of Labels
- 10.3.2 Label Stack
- 10.3.3 VC Merging
- 10.3.4 Label Distribution Protocol
- 10.3.5 Explicit Routing for Traf®c Engineering
- 10.3.6 MPLS Support for Virtual Networks
- 10.4 Integrated Services in the Internet
- 10.4.1 GuaranteedService
- 10.4.2 Controlled-Load Service
- 10.5 RSVP
- 10.5.1 Receiver-InitiatedReservation
- 10.5.2 Reservation Merging
- 10.5.3 Reservation Styles
- 10.5.4 Soft State
- 10.5.5 RSVP Message Format
- 10.6 Differentiated Services
- 10.6.1 DS Field
- 10.6.2 Per Hop Behaviors
- 10.6.3 Traf®c Conditioner
- 10.6.4 Bandwidth Broker
- Summary
- Checklist of Important Terms
- Further Reading
- Problems
- 11 Security Protocols
- 11.1 Security and Cryptographic Algorithms
- 11.1.1 Applications of Cryptography to Security
- 11.1.2 Key Distribution
- 11.2 Security Protocols
- 11.2.1 Application Scenarios
- 11.2.2 Types of Service
- 11.2.3 Setting Up a Security Association
- 11.2.4 IPSec
- 11.2.5 Secure Sockets Layer andTransport Layer Security
- 11.3 CryptographicAlgorithms
- 11.3.1 DES
- 11.3.2 RSA
- Summary
- Checklist of Important Terms
- Further Reading
- Problems
- 12 Multimedia Information and Networking
- 12.1 Lossless Data Compression
- 12.1.1 Huffman Codes
- 12.1.2 Run-Length Codes
- 12.1.3 Adaptive Codes
- 12.2 Digital Representation of Analog Signals
- 12.2.1 Properties of Analog Signals
- 12.2.2 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
- 12.2.3 Digital Transmission of Analog Signals
- ^12.2.4 SNR Performance of Quantizers
- 12.3 Techniques for Increasing Compression
- 12.3.1 Predictive Coding
- 12.3.2 Transform Coding
- 12.3.3 SubbandCoding
- 12.3.4 Discrete Cosine Transform Coding
- 12.3.5 The JPEG Image-Coding Standard
- 12.3.6 Compression of Video Signals
- 12.3.7 The MPEG Video Coding Standards
- 12.3.8 MPEG Multiplexing
- 12.4 The Real-Time Transport Protocol
- 12.4.1 RTP Scenarios andTerminology
- 12.4.2 RTP Packet Format
- 12.4.3 RTP Control Protocol (RTCP)
- 12.5 Session Control Protocols
- 12.5.1 Session Initiation Protocol
- 12.5.2 H.323 Multimedia Communications Systems
- 12.5.3 Media Gateway Control Protocols
- Summary
- Checklist of Important Terms
- Further Reading
- Problems
- Epilogue
- A Delay and Loss Performance Appendices
- A.1 Delay Analysis and Little's Formula
- A.1.1 Arrival Rates andTraf®c LoadDe®nitions
- A.1.2 Little's Formula
- A.2 BasicQueueing Models
- A.2.1 Arrival Processes
- A.2.2 Service Times
- A.2.3 Queueing System Classi®cation
- A.3 M/M/1: A BasicMultiplexer Model
- of Stability A.3.1 M/M/1 Steady State Probabilities and the Notion
- A.3.2 Effect of Scale on Performance
- A.3.3 Average Packet Delay in a Network
- A.4 The M/G/1 model
- A.4.1 Service Time Variability andDelay
- A.4.2 Priority Queueing Systems
- A.4.3 Vacation Models and Multiplexer Performance
- A.5 Erlang B Formula: M/M/c/c System
- B Network Management
- B.1 Network Management Overview
- B.2 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
- B.3 Structure of Management Information
- B.4 Management Information Base
- B.5 Remote Network Monitoring
HTTP SMTP DNS RTP
UDP
IP
TCP
Network
Interf ace 1
Network
Interf ace 2
Network
Interf ace 3
The TCP/IP Protocol Suite
The hourglass shape of the TCP/IP protocol suite underscores the features that make
TCP/IP so powerful. The operation of the single IP protocol over various networks
provides independence from the underlying network technologies. The
communication services of TCP and UDP provide a network-independent platform
on which applications can be developed. By allowing multiple network technologies
to coexist, the Internet is able to provide ubiquitous connectivity and to achieve
enormous economies of scale.
P R E F A C E
OBJECTIVE
Communication networks have entered an era of fundamental change where
market and regulatory forces have ®nally caught up with the relentless advance
of technology, as evidenced by the following:
The explosive growth of multimedia personal computing and the World Wide
Web, demonstrating the value of network-based services.
The deregulation of the telecommunications industry opening the door to new
access network technologies (digital cellular systems, cable modems, high-speed
DSL modems, direct broadcast satellite systems, satellite constellation net-
works, broadband wireless cable) that will cause telecommunications infra-
structure to migrate towards a ¯exible packet-based backbone network
technology.
The explosion in available bandwidth due to optical transmission technology
and the entry of new national and global backbone service providers.
The emergence of the Internet suite of protocols as the primary means for
providing ubiquitous connectivity across the emerging network of networks.
The predominance of data traf®c over voice traf®c dictating that future net-
works will be designed for data, and that telephone voice service must even-
tually operateÐpossibly solelyÐover the Internet.
Thus, the main architectural elements of the network of networks that will
emerge in the next ten years are becoming more evident. The purpose of this
book is to introduce electrical engineering, computer engineering, and computer
science students to fundamental network architecture concepts and to their
application in these emerging networks.
TARGET COURSES
The book is designed for introductory one-semester or one-year courses in com-
munication networks in the upper-level undergraduate and ®rst-year graduate
programs. The second half of the book can be used in more advanced courses
that deal with the details of current network architectures. The book can also be
used by engineering and computer professionals seeking an introduction to net-
working.
As prerequisites the book assumes a general knowledge of computer systems
and programming, and elementary calculus. In certain parts of the text, knowl-
edge of elementary probability is useful but not essential.
vii
and so Chapter 2 can serve as a bridge to the less visible topics relating to the
internal operation of a network. Sockets and TCP/IP utilities provide the basis
for very useful and practical exercises and experiments that provide students with
some ``hands on'' networking experience.
Fundamental Network Architecture Concepts
The second section develops the fundamental concepts of network architecture,
proceeding from the physical layer to the network layer. We complement the
discussion of fundamental concepts with sections that explore trends in network
architecture.
Chapter 3 deals with digital transmission including error detetection. We
identify the bit rate requirements that applications impose on the network,
and then we examine the transmission capabilities of existing and emerging net-
works. We introduce the relationship between bandwidth, bit rate, and signal-to-
noise ratio, and then develop the basicdigital transmission techniques, using
modem standards as examples. The properties of various media (copper wires,
coaxial cable, radio, optical ®ber) and their possible role in emerging access
networks are then discussed. This chapter contains more material than can be
covered in the introductory course, so it is written to allow the instructor to pick
and choose what sections to cover.
Chapter 4 discusses digital transmission systems and the telephone network.
The ®rst few sections deal with properties of current and emerging optical net-
works. The digital multiplexing hierarchy and the SONET standard are intro-
duced. We develop the fault recovery features of SONET rings and we emphasize
the capability of SONET optical networks to create arbitrary logical topologies
under software control. We then introduce wavelength division multiplexing and
explain how WDM optical networks share the ¯exible network con®guration
features of SONET. The design of circuit switches for traditional telephone
networks and for future optical networks is discussed next. The latter sections
deal with telephone networks, with a focus on the signaling system that enables
telephone service and associated enhanced services, e.g., caller ID, 800-call. We
consider the telephone network and the layered architecture of its signaling
system. We discuss the frequency reuse concept and its application in telephone
and satellite cellular networks.
Chapter 5 is the usual place to discuss data link controls. Instead of dealing
immediately with this topic, we ®rst introduce the notions of peer-to-peer pro-
tocols and service models. ARQ protocols that provide reliable transfer service
are developed in detail as speci®c examples of peer-to-peer protocols. The
detailed discussion gives the student an appreciation of what is involved in
implementing a protocol. The end-to-end and hop-by-hop approaches to deploy-
ing peer-to-peer protocols are compared, and additional examples of peer-to-
peer protocols are introduced for ¯ow control and for timing recovery. We also
preview the reliable stream service provided by TCP. The details of HDLC and
Preface ix
PPP data link standards are then presented. Finally we discuss the sharing of a
data link by multiple packet ¯ows and introduce the notion of multiplexing gain.
Chapter 6 deals with the transfer information across shared media, using
LANs and wireless networks as speci®c examples. We begin with an introduction
to broadcast networks and to approaches to sharing a medium. We explain the
function of LANs and their placement in the OSI reference model. We consider
random access as well as scheduling approaches to transferring packets across a
shared medium. We examine the impact of delay-bandwidth product on perfor-
mance, and we show why this dictates the evolution of Ethernet from a shared
medium access technique to a switched technique. In addition to token ring and
FDDI LANs, we also present a full discussion of the IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN
standard. We also discuss FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA channelization
approaches to sharing media and we show their application in various existing
cellular radio networks. We have taken great care to make the dif®cult topic of
CDMA accessible to the student.
Chapter 7 deals with packet switching networks. To provide a context for the
chapter we begin by presenting an end-to-end view of packet transfer across the
Internet. We then develop the notions of datagram and virtual-circuit packet
switching, using IP and ATM as examples. We introduce basic design
approaches to packet switches and routers. Shortest-path algorithms and the
link state and distance vector approaches to selecting routes in a network are
presented next. ATM and the concept of label switching are introduced, and the
relationship between Quality-of-Service and traf®c shaping, scheduling and call
admission control is developed. The chapter includes a discussion of TCP and
ATM congestion control.
Key Architectures and Advanced Topics
The third section shows how the fundamental networking concepts are embodied
in two key network architectures, ATM and TCP/IP. The section also deals with
the interworking of ATM and TCP/IP, as well as with enhancements to TCP/IP
to provide secure and more responsive communications.
Chapter 8 presents a detailed discussion of TCP/IP protocols. We examine
the structure of the IP layer and the details of IP addressing, routing, and
fragmentation and reassembly. We discuss the motivation and present the fea-
tures of IPv6. We introduce UDP, and examine in detail how TCP provides
reliable stream service and ¯ow control end-to-end across a connectionless
packet network. RIP, OSPF, and BGP are introduced as protocols for synthesiz-
ing routing tables in the Internet. Multicast routing is also introduced.
Chapter 9 deals with the architecture of ATM networks. The ATM layer is
explained, and Quality-of-Service and the ATM network service categories are
presented. The various types of ATM adaptation layer protocols are discussed
next. ATM signaling and PNNI routing are introduced.
Chapter 10 deals with the interworking of IP and ATM and with proposed
enhancements to IP. We consider the various approaches for operating IP over
x Preface
