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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERM
The mentally ill were treated more humanely when - people such as Pinel introduced moral treatment. General paresis is: - a deterioration of mental and physical health caused by syphilis Cognitive challenging primarily focuses on - changing thinking processes. A scientific finding is called reliable if it - is replicable Case studies are of little value in - comparing the effectiveness of treatments. Prevalence refers to - the proportion of a population that has a disorder now. Which of the following statements could be made based on data from a correlational study? - People who study more tend to have better grades. In an experimental design, the control group is the group that - does not receive the experimental treatment. DSM-4 is published by the - American Psychiatric Association. The fifth edition of the DSM includes more of a focus on dimensional ratings than did previous editions. This is especially seen in the alternative model it provides for _______________. - personality disorders Comorbidity refers to - having more than one diagnosis at a time A valid classification system is one that - leads to accurate predictions and statements. You go to a therapist for an evaluation, and are diagnosed as having both OCD and depression. This is an example of: - comorbidity A psychoanalyst would be most interested in the _______ of a phobia. - content
Jamie is afraid of being in crowds, because it would be difficult to get out quickly if she needed to. Given only this information, the most appropriate diagnosis is: - agoraphobia A SUDS scale would most likely be used by which of the following types of therapists? - behavioral The most common reason for school refusal in children is: - fear of being away from parents Nancy asks her nurse to tell her every step he is about to take as he gives her a shot. She is using a ______ style of coping with stress. - monitoring The correlational method - is a research procedure used to determine this "co -relationship" between variables The correlational method can - answer the question, "Is there a correlation between the amount of stress in people's lives and the degree of depression they experience?" There are three possible results of a correlational study -
- a positive correlation
- a negative correlation
- no correlation Positive Correlations - Both variables increase or decrease at the same time. Negative Correlations - Indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice versa) Types of Correlational Studies -
- Naturalistic Observation
- The Survey Method
- Archival Research Naturalistic Observation - involves observing and recording the variables of interest in the natural environment without interference or manipulation by the experimenter.
- Disadvantage: Does not allow for scientific control of variables. The Survey Method - In this method, a random sample of participants completes a survey, test, or questionnaire that relates to the variables of interest. Random sampling is a vital part of ensuring the generalizability of the survey results. Archival Research -
- Psychodynamic Model
- Behavioral Model
- Cognitive Model
- Humanistic-Existential Model
- Sociocultural Model How Do Biological Theorists Explain Abnormal Behavior - Adopting a medical perspective, biological theorists view abnormal behavior as an illness brought about by malfunctioning parts of the organism. Typically, they point to problems in brain anatomy or brain chemistry as the cause of such behavior. Brain Anatomy and Abnormal Behavior - The brain is made up of approximately 100 billion nerve cells, called neurons, and thousands of billions of support cells, called glia. Within the brain large groups of neurons form distinct areas, or brain regions. The cerebrum - Some psychological disorders can be traced to abnormal functioning of neurons in the cerebrum, which includes brain structures such as the basal ganglia, hippocampus, amygdala, corpus callosum, and cerebral cortex. A neuron communicating information - A message in the form of an electrical impulse travels down the sending neuron's axon to its nerve ending, where neurotransmitters are released and carry the message across the synaptic space to the dendrites of a receiving neuron. how do messages get from the nerve ending of one neuron to the dendrites of another? - By synapse. Electrical impulse reaches a neuron's ending, the nerve ending is stimulated to release a chemical, called a neurotransmitter that travels across the synaptic space to receptors on the dendrites of the neighboring neurons. psychotropic medications - drugs that mainly affect emotions and thought processes. Four major psychotropic drug groups are used in therapy -
- antidepressant
- antibipolar
- antipsychotic Antianxiety drugs - minor tranquilizers or anxiolytics, help reduce tension and anxiety. Antidepressant drugs - help improve the mood of people who are depressed. Anti-bipolar drugs -
mood stabilizers, help steady the moods of those with a bipolar disorder, a condition marked by mood swings from mania to depression. antipsychotic drugs - help reduce the confusion, hallucinations, and delusions of psychotic disorders, disorders (such as schizophrenia) marked by a loss of contact with reality. electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) - biological treatment, used primarily on depressed patients. psychosurgery - neurosurgery, brain surgery for mental disorders. id - According to Freud, the psychological force that produces instinctual needs, drives, and impulses. How Did Freud Explain Normal and Abnormal Functioning? - instinctual needs, rational thinking, and moral standards. He believed, operates at the unconscious level, unavailable to immediate awareness. He further believed these forces to be dynamic, or interactive. ego - According to Freud, the psychological force that employs reason and operates in accordance with the reality principle. ego defense mechanisms - According to psychoanalytic theory, strategies developed by the ego to control unacceptable id impulses and to avoid or reduce the anxiety they arouse. superego - According to Freud, the psychological force that represents a person's values and ideals. Freud's Developmental Stages - Infancy to maturity, new events challenge individuals and require adjustments in their id, ego, and superego. If successful, they lead to personal growth. If not, the person may become fixated, or stuck, at an early stage of development. How Do Other Psychodynamic Explanations Differ from Freud's? - Each held on to Freud's belief that human functioning is shaped by dynamic psychological forces. Thus all such theories, including Freud's, are referred to as psychodynamic. Ego theorists - emphasize the role of the ego and consider it a more independent and powerful force than Freud did. Self theorists -
Axis IV - codes the major psychosocial stressors the individual has faced recently; e.g., recent divorce, death of spouse, job loss, etc. Axis V - codes the "level of function" the individual has attained at the time of assessment, and, in some cases, is used to indicate the highest level of function in the past year. This is coded on a 0-100 scale, with 100 being nearly "perfect" functioning relational psychoanalytic therapy - The Behavioral Model - that considers therapists to be active participants in the formation of patients' feelings and reactions, and therefore calls for therapists to disclose their own experiences and feelings in discussions with patients. conditioning - The Behavioral Model - A simple form of learning. operant conditioning - The Behavioral Model - A process of learning in which behavior that leads to satisfying consequences is likely to be repeated. modeling - The Behavioral Model - A process of learning in which an individual acquires responses by observing and imitating others. classical conditioning - The Behavioral Model - A process of learning by temporal association in which two events that repeatedly occur close together in time become fused in a person's mind and produce the same response. systematic desensitization - A behavioral treatment in which clients with phobias learn to react calmly instead of with intense fear to the objects or situations they dread. What are Freud's forces? - the id, the ego, and the superego. Dreams - A series of ideas and images that form during sleep. self-efficacy - Albert Bandura, a leading behaviorist, argued that in order to feel happy and function effectively people must develop a positive sense of self-efficacy. That is, they must know that they can master and perform needed behaviors whenever necessary. cognitive-behavioral therapies - Therapy approaches that seek to help clients change both counterproductive behaviors and dysfunctional ways of thinking.
cognitive therapy - A therapy developed by Aaron Beck that helps people recognize and change their faulty thinking processes. How Do Cognitive Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning? - According to cognitive theorists, abnormal functioning can result from several kinds of cognitive problems. Some people may make assumptions and adopt attitudes that are disturbing and inaccurate. Assessing the Cognitive Model - Focuses on a process unique to human beings—the process of human thought. Although cognition is a very special human dimension, it is still only one part of human functioning. The Humanistic-Existential Model - Humanistic and existential theorists are often grouped together. because of their common focus on these broader dimensions of human existence. At the same time, there are important differences between them. Humanists - the more optimistic of the two groups, believe that human beings are born with a natural tendency to be friendly, cooperative, and constructive. Existentialists - Must have an accurate awareness of themselves and live meaningful lives in order to be psychologically well adjusted. These theorists do not believe, however, that people are naturally inclined to live positively. self-actualization - the humanistic process by which people fulfill their potential for goodness and growth. client-centered therapy - the humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers in which clinicians try to help clients by conveying acceptance, accurate empathy, and genuineness. Rogers' Humanistic Theory and Therapy - According to Carl Rogers, the road to dysfunction begins in infancy. We all have a basic need to receive positive regard from the important people in our lives. Those who receive unconditional positive regard early in life - are likely to develop unconditional self-regard. That is, they come to recognize their worth as persons, even while recognizing that they are not perfect. Such people are in a good position to actualize their positive potential. conditions of worth - standards that tell them they are lovable and acceptable only when they conform to certain guidelines.
seek to understand how culture, race, ethnicity, gender, and similar factors affect behavior and thought and how people of different cultures, races, and genders differ psychologically culture-sensitive therapies - approaches that seek to address the unique issues faced by members of cultural minority groups. gender-sensitive, or feminist therapies - Therapies geared to the pressures of being female biopsychosocial theories - Explanations that attribute the cause of abnormality to an interaction of genetic, biological, developmental, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, and societal influences. MODELS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ABNORMALITY - Scientists and clinicians use models, or paradigms, to understand and treat abnormal behavior. The principles and techniques of treatment used by clinical practitioners correspond to their preferred models. THE BIOLOGICAL MODEL - Biological therapists use physical and chemical methods to help people overcome their psychological problems. The leading ones are drug therapy, electroconvulsive therapy, and, on rare occasions, psychosurgery. THE PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL - An individual's behavior, whether normal or abnormal, is determined by underlying psychological forces. They consider psychological conflicts to be rooted in early parent-child relationships and traumatic experiences. THE BEHAVIORAL MODEL - Concentrate on behaviors and propose that they develop in accordance with the principles of learning. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling—account for all behavior, whether normal or dysfunctional. THE COGNITIVE MODEL - Must understand human thought to understand human behavior. When people display abnormal patterns of functioning, cognitive theorists point to cognitive problems, such as maladaptive assumptions and illogical thinking processes. THE HUMANISTIC-EXISTENTIAL MODEL - Focuses on the human need to confront philosophical issues such as self-awareness, values, meaning, and choice successfully to be satisfied in life. THE SOCIOCULTURAL MODEL - Looks outward to three kinds of factors. Some proponents of this perspective focus on social labels and roles; they hold that society calls certain people "mentally ill" and that those individuals in turn follow the role implied by such a label. idiographic understanding -
An understanding of the behavior of a particular individual. assessment - The process of collecting and interpreting relevant information about a client or research participant. standardization - the process in which a test is administered to a large group of people whose performance then serves as a standard or norm against which any individual's score can be measured. reliability - A measure of the consistency of test or research results. validity - The accuracy of a test's or study's results; that is, the extent to which the test or study actually measures or shows what it claims. mental status exam - A set of interview questions and observations designed to reveal the degree and nature of a client's abnormal functioning. test - A device for gathering information about a few aspects of a person's psychological functioning from which broader information about the person can be inferred. projective test - A test consisting of ambiguous material that people interpret or respond to. personality inventory - A test designed to measure broad personality characteristics, consisting of statements about behaviors, beliefs, and feelings that people evaluate as either characteristic or uncharacteristic of them. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI ) - The MMPI consists of more than 500 self-statements, to be labeled "true," "false," or "cannot say." MMPI Scale - Cover issues ranging from physical concerns to mood, sexual behaviors, and social activities. Make up 10 clinical scales, on each of which an individual can score from 0 to 120. When people score above 70 on a scale, is considered deviant. response inventories - Tests designed to measure a person's responses in one specific area of functioning, such as affect, social skills, or cognitive processes. psychophysiological test - A test that measures physical responses (such as heart rate and muscle tension) as possible indicators of psychological problems.
asks about special psychosocial or environmental problems the person is facing, such as school or housing problems. Axis 5 - requires the diagnostician to make a global assessment of functioning (GAF), that is, to rate the person's psychological, social, and occupational functioning overall on a scale from 1 to 100. Is DSM-4-TR an Effective Classification System? - A classification system, like an assessment method, is judged by its reliability and validity. Here reliability means that different clinicians are likely to agree on the diagnosis when they use the system to diagnose the same client. Can Diagnosis and Labeling Cause Harm? - When people are diagnosed as mentally disturbed, they may be viewed and reacted to correspondingly. If others expect them to take on a sick role, they may begin to consider themselves sick as well and act that way. empirically supported treatment - A movement in the clinical field that seeks to identify which therapies have received clear research support for each disorder, to develop corresponding treatment guidelines, and to spread such information to clinicians. Is Therapy Generally Effective? - Studies suggest that therapy often is more helpful than no treatment or than placebos. rapprochement movement - An effort to identify a set of common strategies that run through the work of all effective therapists. psychopharmacologist - A psychiatrist who primarily prescribes medications. Are Particular Therapies Generally Effective? - Many researchers, however, consider it wrong to treat all therapies alike. Some critics suggest that these studies are operating under a uniformity myth—a false belief that all therapies are equivalent DIAGNOSIS - After collecting assessment information, clinicians form a clinical picture and decide upon a diagnosis. The diagnosis is chosen from a classification system. DSM-4-TR - the most recent version of the DSM, known as DSM-4-TR, lists approximately 400 disorders. Clinicians must evaluate a client's condition on five axes, or categories of information. CALL FOR CHANGE: DSM-5 -
DSM-5 will contain numerous additions and changes to the diagnosic categories, criteria, and organization found in DSM-4. Releases of early drafts of this new classification and diagnostic system have been greeted with considerable debate. DANGERS OF DIAGNOSIS AND LABELING - Even with trustworthy assessment data and reliable and valid classification categories, clinicians will not always arrive at the correct conclusion. They are human and so fall prey to various biases, misconceptions, and expectations. TREATMENT - the treatment decisions of therapists may be influenced by assessment information, the diagnosis, the clinician's theoretical orientation and familiarity with research, and the field's state of knowledge. fear - The central nervous system's physiological and emotional response to a serious threat to one's well-being. anxiety - The central nervous system's physiological and emotional response to a vague sense of threat or danger. generalized anxiety disorder - A disorder marked by persistent and excessive feelings of anxiety and worry about numerous events and activities. family pedigree study - A research design in which investigators determine how many and which relatives of a person with a disorder have the same disorder. benzodiazepines - the most common group of antianxiety drugs, which includes Valium and Xanax. GABA - The neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid, whose low activity has been linked to generalized anxiety disorder. Biological Treatments - The leading biological treatment for generalized anxiety disorder is drug therapy sedative-hypnotic drugs - drugs that calm people at lower doses and help them to fall asleep at higher doses. relaxation training - A treatment procedure that teaches clients to relax at will so they can calm themselves in stressful situations. biofeedback - A technique in which a client is given information about physiological reactions as they occur and learns to control the reactions voluntarily.
anxiety sensitivity - A tendency to focus on one's bodily sensations, assess them illogically, and interpret them as harmful. obsession - A persistent thought, idea, impulse, or image that is experienced repeatedly, feels intrusive, and causes anxiety. compulsion - A repetitive and rigid behavior or mental act that a person feels driven to perform in order to prevent or reduce anxiety. obsessive-compulsive disorder - A disorder in which a person has recurrent and unwanted thoughts, a need to perform repetitive and rigid actions, or both. isolation - An ego defense mechanism in which people unconsciously isolate and disown undesirable and unwanted thoughts, experiencing them as foreign intrusions. undoing - An ego defense mechanism whereby a person unconsciously cancels out an unacceptable desire or act by performing another act. reaction formation - An ego defense mechanism whereby a person suppresses an unacceptable desire by taking on a lifestyle that expresses the opposite desire. exposure and response prevention - A behavioral treatment for obsessive- compulsive disorder that exposes a client to anxiety-arousing thoughts or situations and then prevents the client from performing his or her compulsive acts. Also called exposure and ritual prevention. neutralizing - A person's attempt to eliminate unwanted thoughts by thinking or behaving in ways that put matters right internally, making up for the unacceptable thoughts. serotonin - A neurotransmitter whose abnormal activity is linked to depression, obsessive- compulsive disorder, and eating disorders. orbitofrontal cortex - A region of the brain in which impulses involving excretion, sexuality, violence, and other primitive activities normally arise. caudate nuclei - Structures in the brain, within the region known as the basal ganglia, that help convert sensory information into thoughts and actions. GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER -
People with generalized anxiety disorder experience excessive anxiety and worry about a wide range of events and activities. Carl Rogers - the leading humanistic theorist, believed that people with generalized anxiety disorder fail to receive unconditional positive regard from significant others during their childhood and so become overly critical of themselves. PHOBIAS - severe, persistent, and unreasonable fear of a particular object, activity, or situation. There are three main categories of phobias: specific phobias, social phobia, and agoraphobia. PANIC DISORDER - panic attacks are periodic, discrete bouts of panic that occur suddenly. Sufferers of panic disorder experience panic attacks repeatedly and unexpectedly and without apparent reason. OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER - People with obsessive-compulsive disorder are beset by obsessions, perform compulsions, or display both. Common themes in obsessions are contamination and violence. EFFECTS OF STRESS - When we appraise a stressor as threatening, we often experience a stress response consisting of arousal and a sense of fear. The hypothalamus, a brain area that activates the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system. PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS DISORDERS - People with acute stress disorder or post-traumatic stress disorder react with anxiety and related symptoms after a traumatic event, including re-experiencing the traumatic event PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS - are those in which psychosocial and physiological factors interact to cause a physical problem. Factors linked to these disorders are biological factors, such as defects in the autonomic nervous system or particular organs PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY - the body's immune system consists of lymphocytes and other cells that fight off antigens—bacteria, viruses, and other foreign invaders—and cancer cells. PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTS FOR PHYSICAL DISORDERS - Behavioral medicine combines psychological and physical interventions to treat or prevent medical problems. ILLNESS PREVENTION AND HEALTH PROMOTION - in recent years clinicians increasingly have designed programs that aim to eliminate or reduce stress by helping people generally to cope better or to prepare their bodies for stress's impact.
