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ALEXANDER II – REFORMS, Lecture notes of History

Edinburgh Napier UniversityHistory

Details of the reform: Zemstva – 1864: Local elected council who was responsible for public education, public health, local.

Typology: Lecture notes

2021/2022

Uploaded on 09/12/2022

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ALEXANDER II – REFORMS
REFORM: LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Identify the specific reform:
1864 - Zemstva
1870 – Duma (Town Councils)
Who took the initiative to the reform and why?
WHO: Alexander II – Set up a commission to work out suggestions in 1861
WHY:
No elected local government existed (it was usually the nobility that ruled)
The administration locally was inefficient
Describe the resistance to the reform – who resisted it and why?
WHO: It does not say so in this article but the groups that lost power and privileges were critical against this
reform (Nobility and Church)
WHY: As mentioned – they lost some previous privileges
Details of the reform:
Zemstva – 1864: Local elected council who was responsible for public education, public health, local
economic development, road building, provision of services such as water and fire prevention.
District (uezd) – seats divided into three different classes: Nobility (45%), Peasants (40%) and towns men and
clergy (15%)
The districts elected members to the Provincial (guberny) Council
NOTE: The liberals wanted the local councils to dispose imperial taxes – Alexander II said NO!
Duma (Town Council) – 1870: By Municipal Statute Town Councils (Duma) was elected. Russian men
that were property holders and above 25 years of age got to vote. The Town Councils (Duma) responsibility
included public health, provision of services, roads, public education, local trade and industry.
NOTE: The Police force was not a local responsibility. Alexander II and the government controlled them.
Result of the reform:
Zemstva did improve local administration in the areas they were allowed to operate
On the local level the representation in Russia was much broader than in many supposedly advanced
western societies.
Sir Mackenzie Wallace (lived in Russia 1870-75) was very positive…
…but one big hinder was the fact that Alexander II did not extend the representative principle to a higher level
– to a central government. Another one was that the nobility had tax privileges which limited the zemstva
economy
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REFORM: LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Identify the specific reform: 1864 - Zemstva 1870 – Duma (Town Councils) Who took the initiative to the reform and why? WHO: Alexander II – Set up a commission to work out suggestions in 1861 WHY:  No elected local government existed (it was usually the nobility that ruled)  The administration locally was inefficient Describe the resistance to the reform – who resisted it and why? WHO: It does not say so in this article but the groups that lost power and privileges were critical against this reform (Nobility and Church) WHY: As mentioned – they lost some previous privileges Details of the reform: Zemstva – 1864: Local elected council who was responsible for public education, public health, local economic development, road building, provision of services such as water and fire prevention. District (uezd) – seats divided into three different classes: Nobility (45%), Peasants (40%) and towns men and clergy (15%) The districts elected members to the Provincial (guberny) Council NOTE: The liberals wanted the local councils to dispose imperial taxes – Alexander II said NO! Duma (Town Council) – 1870: By Municipal Statute Town Councils (Duma) was elected. Russian men that were property holders and above 25 years of age got to vote. The Town Councils (Duma) responsibility included public health, provision of services, roads, public education, local trade and industry. NOTE: The Police force was not a local responsibility. Alexander II and the government controlled them. Result of the reform:  Zemstva did improve local administration in the areas they were allowed to operate  On the local level the representation in Russia was much broader than in many supposedly advanced western societies.  Sir Mackenzie Wallace (lived in Russia 1870-75) was very positive… …but one big hinder was the fact that Alexander II did not extend the representative principle to a higher level

  • to a central government. Another one was that the nobility had tax privileges which limited the zemstva economy

REFORM: LEGAL REFORMS

Identify the specific reform: 1864 – Judicial reforms Who took the initiative to the reform and why? WHO: Alexander II – by decree WHY:  Several different types of courts made the legal system confusing and unfair  The court officials were poorly trained and some even illiterate  Evidence was normally presented in written form (most common people in Russia were illiterate)  Evidence from the nobility was usually given more weight (credence) than from any other group  The accused individuals hardly ever saw the judges – most cases were handled by pen (written communication)  Corruption was wide spread (“ No grease, no motion ”) Describe the resistance to the reform – who resisted it and why? WHO: The old conservative élite WHY: They lost their ability to run some of the legal system (like local courts) and some other privileges they had in the older judicial system Details of the reform: The 1864 decree saw the following changes:  High salaries were given to the higher officials in the judicial system – to avoid bribery  Trials became public  In the open courts, you now expected the evidence to be presented orally and the evidence would also be cross-examined  Trial by jury was introduced  Appeal courts were set up  Justice of Peace were elected by the district zemstvo for a period of three years  Judges were nominated by the Tsar (when appointed they were guaranteed independence and it was very difficult to remove them) Result of the reform:  The courts became trusted and confidence + respect from all groups of the society  Sir Mackenzie Wallace (lived in Russia 1870-75) was once again very positive… …but some problems remained:  Special courts for specific crime (like terrorism) would still exist  Jury’s and some judges often followed their moral conviction instead of the evidential proofs… NOTE: Russia needed well trained legal assistants so the Tsar set up an independent bar (the bar here refers to the qualifying procedure by which a lawyer is licensed to practice law in a given jurisdiction). This education would be a good breeding ground for future reformers (and revolutionaries – for example Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin) was a lawyer…)

REFORM: EDUCATIONAL REFORMS

Identify the specific reform: 1861 – Develop primary education in the Russian villages (soon handed over to the Zemstva + later the Dumas when they were set up in the urban areas) 1862 – New schools were placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education 1863 – University Regulations 1871 – Gymnasia introduced 1872 – Realschule introduced 1872 – Women accepted to Moscow University 1876 – Imperial Statute about women’s Higher Education Who took the initiative to the reform and why? WHO: Alexander II appointed Golvonin as Minister of Education (aligned with the liberal reformers). Alexander II took a close personal interest in the drafting of the University Regulations 1863. WHY:  The Russian educational system was very strict and repressive  The Russian Orthodox Church (“ traditionally stifling influence ”) had monopoly on education Describe the resistance to the reform – who resisted it and why? WHO: Conservative (nobility especially) and the Orthodox Church WHY:  The reforms were very liberal and they opened education on all levels for all groups of the Russian society. Money and position was not an issue for talented students anymore.  The Church lost its monopoly of education… Details of the reforms:  The first reform 1861 started a process of building up a primary education system all over Russia (most Russians were illiterate at this time)  With the new reform 1862 we see a separation of the older Church education and a more modern government controlled educational system  Best textbooks received prizes which encouraged the production of new textbooks  The University Regulations of 1863 is often described as Golvonin’s most famous contribution. o The universities were given certain autonomy in administrative matters and in the choice of curriculums. o Rectors were appointed four years by a Council of Professors o Deans were elected by faculties for three years o The teaching of Law was upgraded and the teaching of constitutional law was reinstated. o Interested “outsiders” could attend lectures o Poor students could receive reductions on the tuition (some even got their education without having to pay) o Foreigners were let into Russian universities o The universities could import duty free any kind of scholarly texts from abroad – and they were not subject to the examination by the censorship… o Scholarships were set up to support the best students o Fact-finding expeditions abroad were encouraged NOTE – 1866 assassination attempt against Alexander II. Led to changes – Dmitri Tolstoy (reactionary and close to the Orthodox Church) replaced Golvonin who was accused of attributing to the radical ideas allowed in the liberal education policies.  Secondary education improved. A new Gymnasia with a classical curriculum (Greek, Latin, Math) and a modern technical Real Schule introduced. An increased number of secondary schools.  Technical Institutes set up  Women Education – Moscow University organized the first courses for women in 1872; women were admitted to the medical academy in St Petersburg; Five Universities set up degree courses for women in 1876 Result of the reform:  The number of Primary and Secondary schools increased fourfold between 1861- 1881  The University Regulations of 1863 allowed a freedom of expression which had not been seen for 50 years  Tolstoy’s reforms had some positive effects on the administrative efficiency and equality of opportunity  Higher education for women started in 1872 – by 1881 there were some 2000 women studying at universities in Russia

REFORM: CENSORSHIP (This part will include some background material) Identify the specific reform: ( 1804 – First Statute of Censorship) ( 1826 – Second Statute of Censorship – “Iron Statute”) ( 1828 – Third Statute of Censorship) 1865 – Press Law Who took the initiative to the reform and why? WHO: The first initiative towards a formal Statute of Censorship was taken by Tsar Alexander I. The Second and Third Statute of Censorship came during the reign of Tsar Nicholas I. Formally it was first under the Ministry of Education. Later several individuals of the government got involved in a Supreme Censorship Committee (Ministers of Education, Interior and Foreign Affairs. Also, the Third Section was actively involved) WHY: The spread of modern ideas connected to the French Revolution (liberal ideas) and in an era of nationalism Russia decided to formalize the censorship. WHO: After discussions within the Russian bureaucracy Tsar Alexander decide 1863 to pass the responsibility of the censorship from the Minister of Education Golvonin to the Ministry of Interior, Valuev (conservative). Valuev took the initiative to the Press Law of 1865 WHY: The periodical press grew rapidly in the middle of the 19th^ century. The new periodicals delivered some mild moderate critical comments against the governments’ actions at first but with time they became more critical… Describe the resistance to the reform – who resisted it and why? Liberals resisted the Press Law (and censorship) Details of the reform: The 1826 Statute of Censorship had been very detailed in its approach. It should control the three spheres of social, political and cultural life of society: rights and internal security, the direction of public opinion in accordance with the present circumstances and the types of government, science and education of youth. In 19 chapters and 230 sections it presented detailed rules to guide not only censors, but also cited the rights and responsibilities of booksellers, holders of libraries for reading, printing and lithographs, as well as recommendations for bulletins and periodicals, Jewish books, etc. The 1828 Statute of Censorship was a bit less harsh and detailed. It was built on the principle that censorship should not give "any direction to literature and the general opinion; it was only to prohibit the publication or sale of those works of art and science, which were harmful with regard to faith, the throne, good manners and personal honor of citizens." These Statutes were used by the government of Alexander II. In 1865 the Minister of Interior Valuev released the Press Law. It stated which publications were freed from preliminary censorship (current periodical publications, origin writings of not less than 160 printed pages, all government publications, all publications within academics, universities, and learned societies and institutions, all publications in Greek and Latin + the translations of these publications, sketches, diagrams and maps). It also stated what punishment a periodical could receive when it published unwanted material. Result of the “reform” - censorship: The result of censorship during the reign of Tsar Alexander II was dual. Sometimes it was fairly strict (like in 1866 when the radical journal The Contemporary was forced to close – but that was a decision taken just after the assassination attempt against Alexander II) and sometimes more lenient. In Russia, this period represents a considerable freedom of both ideas and expressions:  1855 - 1864 – the number of new books published per year doubled  1864 - 1881 – the number of new books published per year trebled