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BIOS 256- Exam 2- Chamberlain Questions with Answers Graded A+, Exams of Biology

Howard Community CollegeBiology

BIOS 256- Exam 2- Chamberlain Questions with Answers Graded A+

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2025/2026

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BIOS 256- Exam 2- Chamberlain Questions with Answers Graded A+
1.
Monomers of
proteins, carbs
and lipids, and
nucleic acids
2.
What is metabo-
lism?
Carbohydrates: Monomers are monosaccharides/sugar (glucose, galactose, fruc-
tose)
Proteins:
Monomers
are
amino
acids
Lipids: Monomers are fatty acids and glycerol
Nucleic Acids: Monomers are nucleotides
The
sum
of
all
chemical
reactions
in
the
body
3.
Anabolism
-Endergonic
reaction
-Energy
is
consumed
as
the
reaction
takes
place.
-Build up!
-Create
bonds
between
small
molecules
to
make
large
molecules
(polymers)
-Example:
protein
synthesis
4.
Catabolism
-Exergonic
reaction
-Energy
is
released
as
reaction
takes
place
-Break
down
-Break
bonds
in
large
molecules
(polymers)
to
make
small
molecules
-Example:
digestion
of
starch
to
glucose
5.
What are
the types
of macronutri-
ents? (essay)
6.
What is the
importance of
each macronutri-
ent? (essay)
-
Water
-
Carbohydrates
-
Proteins
-
Lipids
-Water: Solvent, coolant, involved in metabolic reactions, waste dilution, supports
blood volume/pressure.
-Carbohydrates:
Fuel,
component
in
nucleic
acids,
ATP,
glycoproteins,
glycolipids.
pf3
pf4
pf5
pf8
pf9
pfa
pfd
pfe
pff
pf12
pf13
pf14

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BIOS 256- Exam 2- Chamberlain Questions with Answers Graded A+

  1. Monomers of proteins, carbs and lipids, and nucleic acids
  2. What is metabo- lism? Carbohydrates: Monomers are monosaccharides/sugar (glucose, galactose, fruc- tose) Proteins: Monomers are amino acids Lipids: Monomers are fatty acids and glycerol Nucleic Acids: Monomers are nucleotides The sum of all chemical reactions in the body
  3. Anabolism - Endergonic reaction
    • Energy is consumed as the reaction takes place.
    • Build up!
    • Create bonds between small molecules to make large molecules (polymers)
    • Example: protein synthesis
  4. Catabolism - Exergonic reaction
    • Energy is released as reaction takes place
    • Break down
    • Break bonds in large molecules (polymers) to make small molecules
    • Example: digestion of starch to glucose
  5. What are the types of macronutri- ents? (essay)
  6. What is the importance of each macronutri- ent? (essay) - Water - Carbohydrates - Proteins - Lipids - Water: Solvent, coolant, involved in metabolic reactions, waste dilution, supports blood volume/pressure. - Carbohydrates: Fuel, component in nucleic acids, ATP, glycoproteins, glycolipids.

BIOS 256- Exam 2- Chamberlain Questions with Answers Graded A+

  1. What is the source of each macronutri- ent? (essay) - Proteins: Support muscle contraction, cell structure, enzymes, transport, hor- mones, oxygen transport, blood factors, immunity, neuromodulators, butters, emergency fuel. - Lipids: Fuel, structure of plasma membranes and myelin sheaths, involved in hormones, insulation, vitamin absorption, vitamin D synthesis, blood clotting. - Water: Present in drinks, fruits, vegetables, and produced during metabolism. - Carbohydrates: starch, sugar, cellulose, glucose. Found in grains, legumes, fruits, vegetables. Complex carbs in whole grains, simple carbs in fruits and dairy. - Proteins: eggs, meat, peroxidase, nuts, cheese. Come from animal (meat, dairy) and plant sources (legumes, nuts). Animal proteins are complete; plant proteins may need combining. - Lipids (Fats): triglyceride, steroids. Saturated fats from animal products, unsatu- rated fats from vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, and fatty fish.
  2. Micronutrients Needed in small quantities, play crucial roles in body functions without providing energy. They include: Vitamins: Essential for metabolism, immunity, growth, and more. Categories:
    • Water-soluble: Vitamin C (found in citrus fruits, strawberries) supports immunity and skin health.
    • Fat-soluble: Vitamin D (from fatty fish, sunlight) aids bone and immune health; Vitamin A (in carrots, sweet potatoes) benefits vision and skin. Minerals: Support structural and regulatory functions.
    • Calcium (dairy, leafy greens): Vital for bones and muscles.
    • Iron (meat, beans): Key for oxygen transport.

BIOS 256- Exam 2- Chamberlain Questions with Answers Graded A+

and the fat-solu- ble vitamins A, D, E, K

  1. Absorptive (fed) state
  2. Post absorptive (fasting) state
    • Vitamin B12 deficiency: Leads to pernicious anemia (fatigue, weakness, constipa- tion, loss of appetite, numbness, memory issues).
    • Vitamin A deficiency: Results in night blindness, immune weakness, and poten- tially complete blindness.
    • Vitamin D deficiency: Linked to rickets (children), osteomalacia (adults), and higher osteoporosis risk.
    • Vitamin E deficiency: Rare, causes nerve/muscle damage, vision problems, and weakens immunity.
    • Vitamin K deficiency: Increases bleeding and bruising due to poor blood clotting.
    • Energy input is greater than energy output
    1. Glucose Metabolism: Cells use some glucose for energy via cellular respiration.
    2. Nutrient Storage:
    • Glycogenesis: Excess glucose is absorbed by the liver and turned into glycogen, an anabolic process stimulated by insulin.
    • Lipogenesis: Remaining glucose is converted to triglycerides and stored in the liver and adipose tissue.
    • Energy output is greater than energy input
    1. Blood Glucose Maintenance: Utilizes stored glycogen and fats.
    2. Stored Nutrient Breakdown:
    • Glycogenolysis: Glycogen is broken down into glucose, stimulated by glucagon and epinephrine, inhibited by insulin.
    • Lipolysis: Triglycerides are broken down into monoglycerides and fatty acids.
    • Gluconeogenesis: New glucose is produced from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., lactic acid, glycerol, amino acids).

BIOS 256- Exam 2- Chamberlain Questions with Answers Graded A+

  1. What hormone dominates in an absorptive (fed) state?
  2. What hormone dominates in a post absorptive (fasting) state?
  3. Thermoregula- tion Insulin dominates, promoting glucose uptake for energy and storage. Glucagon leads, increasing blood glucose via glycogen breakdown and gluconeo- genesis.
    • the Hypothalamus is the body's thermostat
    • Heat losing mechanisms: cutaneous vasodilation and sweating
    • Heat conserving mechanisms: cutaneous vasoconstriction + shivering
    • Thyroid hormone increases metabolic rate
  4. Glycolysis - Produces: 2 Pyruvate, 2 ATP (net gain), 2 NADH, and 2 H2O.
    • the splitting of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate in preparation for anaero- bic fermentation or aerobic respiration (catabolic)
    • Anaerobic process (uses no oxygen)
    • occurs in cytoplasm of the cell
    • Yields small amount of energy (transferred to ATP)
  5. Gluconeogenesis - Produces: glucose
    • the synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrates such as glycerol and amino acids (anabolic)
    • Occurs chiefly in the liver
    • Also can occur in the kidneys if necessary
  6. Glycogenesis - Produces: glycogen
    • The synthesis of glycogen by polymerizing glucose (anabolic)

BIOS 256- Exam 2- Chamberlain Questions with Answers Graded A+

  1. The general for- mula for cel- lular respira- tion, which in- cludes glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain, can be summa- rized as:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 30 - 32ADP ’6CO2 + 6H2O + 30 - 32ATP

  1. Type 1 Diabetes Causes:
    • lack of insulin production in the beta cells of the pancreas
    • autoimmune disease Result of disease:
    • Body does NOT produce insulin
    • Can NOT lower blood sugar Treatment:
    • Insulin injections
  2. Type 2 Diabetes Causes:
    • the insulin receptors on the cell do not recognize insulin the body makes
    • can result from age or environmental factors Result of disease:
    • Body cannot use insulin that is made Treatment:
    • Lifestyle changes (NOT responsive to insulin injections)

BIOS 256- Exam 2- Chamberlain Questions with Answers Graded A+

Functions of the urinary system include

  1. Functions of the hormones of uri- nary system: Al- dosterone · Waste and Excess Substance Removal: The kidneys filter waste products and excess substances from the bloodstream, such as urea, creatinine, and excess salts, which are then excreted as urine. · Regulation of Fluid and Electrolyte Balance: The urinary system manages the body's fluid volume and electrolyte levels, ensuring proper hydration and ion balance essential for cell function. · Blood Pressure Regulation: The kidneys contribute to blood pressure control by adjusting the volume of blood (through fluid balance) and secreting the enzyme renin, which regulates blood pressure. · Acid-Base Homeostasis Maintenance: The kidneys maintain the body's acid-base balance by excreting hydrogen ions and reabsorbing bicarbonate from urine, helping to stabilize blood pH. · Urine Excretion: The system expels waste and excess substances from the body through urine production, involving the kidneys' filtration process, and the trans- portation of urine through the ureters to the bladder, and expulsion via the urethra Targets:
    • Nephron loop
    • Distal Convoluted Tubule
    • Collecting Duct Functions:
    • Promotes Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion
    • indirectly promotes Cl- and H2O reabsorption
    • maintains blood volume and reduces urine volume
  1. Functions of the hormones of uri- nary system: Na- triuretic peptides
  2. Functions of the hormones of uri- nary system: Cal- citonin and Cal- citriol Targets:
    • Atterent and etterent arterioles
    • Collecting duct Functions:
    • Dilate atterent arteriole, constrict etterent arteriole, increase GFR
    • inhibit secretion of renin, ADH, and aldosterone
    • inhibit NaCl reabsorption by collecting duct
    • increase urine volume and lower blood pressure Targets: Distal Convoluted Tubule Functions: Weak ettects similar to those of parathyroid hormone
  1. Functions of the hormones of uri- nary system: Ep- inephrine and norepinephrine
  2. Functions of the hormones of urinary system: Parathyroid hor- mone Targets:
    • Juxtaglomerular apparatus
    • atterent arteriole Functions:
    • Induce renin secretion
    • constrict atterent arteriole
    • reduce GFR and urine volume Targets:
    • Proximal Convoluted Tubule
    • Distal Convoluted Tubule
    • Nephron loop Functions:
    • Promotes Ca2+ reabsorption by loop and DCT
    • increases phosphate excretion by PCT
    • promotes calcitriol synthesis
  3. Urine Volumes - Normal Output: average adult produces 1 to 2 L of urine per day

Figure 23.1 The Urinary System

  1. Figure 23.4 Gross Anatomy of the Kidney
  2. Figure 23.8 Mi- croscopic Anato- my of the Nephron
  3. What are the different parts of the nephron? (STUDY HARD per prof!) IMAGE: Figure 23.1 The Urinary System. (a) Anterior view. (b) Posterior view. Organs of the urinary system are highlighted: two kidneys, two ureters, the urinary bladder, and the urethra IMAGE: Figure 23.4 Gross Anatomy of the Kidney label parts of kidney and renal pelvis, renal sinus IMAGE: Figure 23.8Microscopic Anatomy of the Nephron: (a) Location of the nephrons in one wedge-shaped lobe of the kidney (b) Structure of a nephron. (c) The true proportions of the nephron loops relative to the convoluted tubules. Three nephrons are shown. Their proximal and distal convoluted tubules are commingled in a single tangled mass in each nephron. Renal Corpuscle:
    • Glomerulus
    • Glomerular (Bowman's) Capsule Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT):

Loop of Henle: Descending Limb Ascending Limb Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) Collecting Duct

  1. Flow of flu- id from the point where the glomerular fil- trate is formed to the point where urine leaves the body: glomerular capsule ’proximal convoluted tubule ’nephron loop ’distal convoluted tubule ’collecting duct ’papillary duct ’minor calyx ’major calyx ’renal pelvis ’ureter ’urinary bladder ’urethra.
  2. What is the differ- Length of urethra! ence between the male and female urinary systems?
  3. Describe the flow of urine through the nephron. Male urethra: 18 cm long. Female Urethra: 3 to 4 cm long, bound to anterior wall of vagina Renal Corpuscle (Glomerulus + Bowman's Capsule): Blood filtration starts, forming initial urine (filtrate). Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): Filtrate undergoes reabsorption of water, nu-

Function of Glucagon

  1. Function of Se- cretin
  2. Function of So- matostatin
  3. Identify what will happen to glu- cose in the ab- sence of oxygen
  4. Identify the hor- mone that regu- lates GFR
  5. List and describe all the products of cellular respi- ration
  6. List all the waste products that are
    • Glucagon raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluco- neogenesis in the liver
    • inhibits glycogenesis
    • promotes lipolysis
    • counteracts insulin to maintain glucose homeostasis.
    • stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate, neutralizing stomach acid as it enters the small intestine. ]-regulates water homeostasis and attects the secretion of other digestive glands
    • Inhibits gastric secretion and motility
    • delays emptying of stomach
    • inhibits secretion by pancreas
    • inhibits gallbladder contraction and bile secretion
    • reduces blood circulation and nutrient absorption in small intestine body produces lactic acid when oxygen is not present atrial natriuretic peptide ATP, carbon dioxide, and water Metabolic waste amino acids Uric acid

normally excret- ed by the kidneys

  1. Describe the process of glu- cose metabolism through aerobic respiration in de- tail Creatinine Blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
    • occurs in the presence of oxygen, and generates 30 - 32 ATP
    • majority of aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondrion
  2. Function of Renin enzyme that activates hormonal mechanisms to restore blood pressure
  3. Collecting duct receives fluid from the DCTs of several nephrons as it passes back into the medulla
  4. PCT (Proxi- mal Convoluted Tubule)
    • arises from glomerular capsulere
    • absorbs about 65% of glomerular filtrate, removes some substances from blood, and secretes them into tubular fluid for disposal in urine
  5. Renal Corpuscle filters the blood plasma
  6. DCT (Distal Con- voluted Tubule) contains about 20% of the water and 7% of the salts from glomerular filtrate
  7. Loop of Henle heavily engaged in the active transport of salts and have many mitochondria
  8. Locations of Se- cretion and Re- absorption in the Nephron: Renal Corpuscle Glomerulus: Filters water, ions, small molecules. Glomerular (Bowman's) Capsule: Collects initial filtrate.

Locations of Se- cretion and Re- absorption in the Nephron: Loop of Henle

  1. Locations of Se- cretion and Re- absorption in the Nephron: Dis- tal Convoluted Tubule Descending Limb: Absorption:
    • Water (H2O): 15 percent reabsorbed in descending limb; osmosis Secretion:
    • Urea: Secretion, dittusion in descending limb Ascending Limb: Absorption
    • Sodium (Na+): 25 percent reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; active transport
    • Chloride (Cl-): Reabsorbed in thin and thick ascending limb; dittusion in ascend- ing limb
    • Potassium (K+): 20 percent reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; symport
    • Bicarbonate: Reabsorbed, symport with Na+ and antiport with Cl-; in ascending limb
    • HCO3-: Reabsorbed; dittusion in ascending limb
    • Calcium: Reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; dittusion
    • Magnesium: Reabsorbed in thick ascending limb; dittusion Absorption:
    • Sodium (Na+): 5 percent reabsorbed; active
    • Chloride (Cl-): Reabsorbed; dittusion
    • water (H2O): 8 percent reabsorbed if ADH; osmosis (regulated by aldosterone and parathyroid hormone).
    • HCO3-: Reabsorbed; dittusion
    • Magnesium: Reabsorbed
    • Phosphate: Reabsorbed; dittusion

Secretion:

  • Hydrogen ions (H+): Secreted; active
  • Potassium (K+): Secreted; active
  • Ammonium (NH4+): Secreted; dittusion
  • Some drugs: Secreted; active
  1. Locations of Se- cretion and Re- absorption in the Nephron: Collect- ing Duct Absorption:
  • Water (H2O): Variable amounts reabsorbed, controlled by ADH, osmosis
  • Sodium: 5 percent reabsorbed, stimulated by aldosterone; active
  • Urea: Reabsorption in medullary collecting ducts; dittusion
  • Chloride: Reabsorbed; symport
  • Bicarbonate: Reabsorbed antiport with Cl-
  • HCO3-: Reabsorbed; antiport with Na+
  • Calcium: Reabsorbed if parathyroid hormone present; active Secretion:
  • Hydrogen Ions (H+): Secreted; active
  • NH4+: Secreted; dittusion
  • Some drugs: Secreted; active
  • Potassium (K+): Secretion controlled by aldosterone; active