Download C180 Introduction to Psychology Study Guide and more Study Guides, Projects, Research Psychology in PDF only on Docsity!
Page 1 of
C180 Introduction to Psychology Study Guide
C180 Study Guide
Select a topic from the Table of Contents to skip directly to that location in this document.
Table of Contents
How to Use this Study Guide................................................................................................................................................. 1 Coaching Report and Book Chapters.................................................................................................................................. 2 Section 1: Foundations of Psychology................................................................................................................................ 3 Section 2: Biological Perspectives........................................................................................................................................ 7 Section 3: Theories of Memory............................................................................................................................................. 9 Section 4: Personality Development and Social Psychology.................................................................................... 12 Section 5: Psychological Disorders and Treatments.................................................................................................. 13
How to Use this Study Guide
This document is a guided study plan to help you refine your studying as you progress toward
the objective assessment. This guide is not a substitute for a thorough reading of the
material; it is just to help you identify areas to critically think about so you can be
successful in this course.
Tips for using this guide :
- Answer the questions as you read through the learning resource.
- Complete each self-evaluation checklist after you complete the reading. If you feel
that you still need additional help, contact the course instructor.
- Prior to taking the objective assessment, review the guide to help you study.
If you have taken your pre-assessment and have a coaching report:
Congratulations on completing the pre-assessment for C180; this is a great step along the
path to success in this course.
1. Start by taking a look at your coaching report—you will see the competencies and
topics listed with your score.
2. Focus more on the lower scoring competency areas , but do not ignore the
others. Remember: You will see different questions on the objective
assessment.
3. Refer to the "Coaching Report and Topics" table in this document to locate the
competency topic and associated chapter.
Guide
Psychology
Page 2 of
This is a sample coaching report. Refer to your personalized report to review your results.
Coaching Report and Topics
The following table lists the topics in the learning resource associated with course competencies.
Competency Topics
Foundations of Psychology
Evolution of Psycholog y Psychological Research
Biological Perspectives
The Human Brain Endocrine and Nervous System
Theories of Memory
Theories of Conditioning and Learning Models and Processes of Learning Theories of Personality
Personality Development and
Social Psychology
Influences on Personality Social Cognition Social Behavior
Psychological Disorders and
Treatments
Common Psychological Disorders Types of Psychotherapy Biological Based Treatments
Guide
Psychology
Page 4 of
Now, looking back at the table above, match each foundational theorist to the appropriate school
of thought:
William James, Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers, Wilhelm Wundt, Max Wertheimer, John B. Watson & B. F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud
4. What are some of the major types of psychologists that we have today? (Lessons 3.1,
3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5) three major types of psychologist: those who help people deal with personal
problems or stress (clinical and counseling psychologists); those who teach and usually also
conduct research on the mind and behavior (academic psychologists); and those who seek to
solve specific practical problems, such as helping athletes perform better (applied
psychologists)
Psychological Research
Explain the types of research
1. Describe the unique characteristics of the following four approaches to research in
psychology. (Lessons 4.1, 4.2, 4.3)
Descriptive: Descriptive research comes in three variations: naturalistic observation,
case studies, and surveys.
Correlational : correlational research when they want to study the relationship of two
potentially connected variables without actually altering anything about those
variables.
Experimental (include control and experimental groups): An experimental group receives
the complete procedure that defines the experiment. A control group will be treated the
same as the experimental group except it does not receive the manipulations of the
independent variable that constitute the treatment.
Case Study : deep, contextual analysis of a specific individual, group, or situation.
2. In considering the ethical considerations in research, explain each of the following
(include why each is important and what might result without these three elements in
ethical research). (Lesson 6.1)
Confidentiality : ensuring that participants' personal information and data remain
private, protecting their identities and preventing unauthorized access or disclosure,
thereby building trust and allowing for honest participation in the study.
Potential Risks : include physical harm, psychological distress, invasion of privacy,
breach of confidentiality, loss of anonymity, social stigma, economic disadvantage, and
any unforeseen negative consequences arising from participation in the study;
Guide
Psychology
Page 5 of
researchers must actively identify and mitigate these risks to ensure ethical research
practices.
Guide
Psychology
Page 7 of
SECTION 2: Biological Perspectives
The Human Brain
- Identify parts and processes of neurons and the nervous system. (Lessons 1.1, 1.2) Dendrite, Axon, Cell Membrane, Terminal Button, Myelin Sheath, Cell Body, Nucleus
- Identify several different types of neurotransmitters in the brain. (Lesson 1.2) dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, glutamate, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), norepinephrine, histamine, glycine, and endorphins.
- Identify these major areas of the brain and the function of each. (Lessons 2.2., 2.7, 2.8) **Cerebellum – ball looking at the base of the brain, involved with coordination and voluntary movements Corpus Callosum – connects the two sides of the brain, thick bundles of nerve fibers that allows messages to transmit between the two hemispheres Thalamus – major job to relay our sensory experiences except for smell Hypothalamus – controls eating drinking, regulation of body temperature, blood pressure heart rate and sexual behavior. Hippocampus – converts short term memories to long term Amygdala – plays a role in strong emotions such as fear and anger
- Match the lobes of the brain to their functions using: Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, or Temporal. (Lessons 2.2, 2.4, 2.5)**
Lobe of the Brain Function of Each Lobe
Occipital Vision Temporal Hearing^ and^ language
Guide
Psychology
Page 8 of
Frontal Thinking,^ planning,^ decision^ making Parietal Sense^ of^ touch
Endocrine and Nervous Systems
- Match the structures and functions of the endocrine system using the following terms. (Lessons 3.1, 3.2) Pituitary, Testes, Ovaries, Pancreas.
Structures within the Endocrine System Functions
Pancreas Sugar/Insulin^ regulation Ovaries Estrogen Pituitary Master^ gland^ -^ sends^ signals^ to^ others Testes Testosterone
- Identify the structures and functions of the nervous system. (Lessons 4.1, 4.2, 4.3) Peripheral – nerves that branch from the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body divided into automatic and somatic Central – the brain and spinal cord acting as the control center Sympathetic Nervous System – flight fight or freeze Parasympathetic Nervous System – rest and digest Somatic Nervous System voluntary movements
- Sensation & Perception. (Lesson 5 Introduction, Lesson 6 Introduction) a. Define sensation & perception : receiving info from our senses and process of interpretation of senses b. Provide an example of a perception and how it differs from a sensation: A good example of a perception is "seeing a familiar friend's face in a crowd and immediately recognizing them," while the corresponding sensation would simply be the visual input of seeing a face with certain features; the perception involves the brain actively interpreting that visual input as belonging to a specific person you know, adding meaning and context to the sensory data.
Guide
Psychology
Page 10 of
Trauma
Sarah goes for a jog nearly every morning before work with her dog. One day an alligator leapt from the neighborhood pond, nearly biting her dog’s leg. Now she experiences panic symptoms, sweat, and heart racing every time she passes this pond on her jogging path. She discloses to her therapist that she is not sure if she will be able to continue running because these symptoms are so intense. What is the unconditioned stimulus : the pond What is the unconditioned response : Panic symptoms What is the neutral stimulus that becomes the conditioned stimulus: jogging What is the conditioned response : panic symptoms, sweat, and heart racing How would you extinguish this response: recondition the pond and jogging with extinction. What else might Sarah generalize her reaction to (refer back to “stimulus generalization” if needed): the alligator
The Case of The Stinky Fish
Tom was really looking forward to lunch because he was meeting a coworker at the new sushi restaurant. Unfortunately, the fish that was used by the chef had been left out too long and was spoiled. Not long after eating the sushi, Tom felt sick and had to rush to the bathroom. Thereafter, the mere mention of sushi would make Tom nauseous. What is the unconditioned stimulus : sushi What is the unconditioned response : sickness What is the neutral stimulus that becomes the conditioned stimulus: sushi What is the conditioned response : nausea How would you extinguish this response: extinction What might Tom generalize his reaction to: spoiled fish
- Define operant conditioning. (Lesson 2 Introduction) A method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for responses to assist an individual in making the association between a particular behavior and a consequence.
- Explain the differences. (Lessons 2.4, 2.5) a. Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers
- Primary Reinforcers : These are reinforcers that have natural, intrinsic value and do not need to be learned. They satisfy biological needs or desires. Examples include food, water, sleep, and warmth.
Guide
Psychology
Page 11 of
- Secondary Reinforcers : These are reinforcers that gain their value through association with primary reinforcers or through learning. They are not inherently satisfying on their own but become reinforcing because of their link to primary reinforcers. Examples include money, praise, or tokens.
Guide
Psychology
Page 13 of
- Behavior: Staying up too late watching TV.
- Punisher: The next day, I would limit my access to TV or other entertainment (negative punishment) as a consequence of being tired and unproductive.
- Explanation: The removal of the enjoyable activity (TV) helped decrease my tendency to stay up late, because I didn’t want to lose access to something I valued. These examples illustrate how reinforcement (adding a pleasant consequence) can increase desired behaviors, while punishment (removing a pleasant consequence) can decrease undesirable behaviors.
- Explain the three main types of memory storage with examples. (Lessons 4.1, 4. The three main types of memory storage are sensory memory , short-term memory , and long- term memory. Each type plays a distinct role in how we process and retain information. Here's an explanation of each type with examples: 1. Sensory Memory
- Definition : Sensory memory is the first stage of memory processing, where sensory information is held for a very short time (milliseconds to a few seconds) after an event. It acts as a buffer for incoming sensory data.
- Purpose : It allows us to briefly retain impressions of sensory information just long enough for us to decide whether to pay attention to it and move it into short-term memory.
- Example : Imagine walking down the street and hearing a car horn honking. The sound lingers in your sensory memory for a fraction of a second, allowing you to recognize it even if you weren’t consciously paying attention to it at first. If you focus on the sound, it may move into your short- term memory. 2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
Guide
Psychology
Page 14 of
- Definition : Short-term memory holds information for a limited time (about 15-30 seconds) and has a limited capacity (usually 7±2 items). It is where we temporarily store and process information that we are currently aware of or actively thinking about.
- Purpose : It allows us to hold onto information long enough to use it, like remembering a phone number for a short period before dialing it.
- Example : When someone tells you a phone number, you may repeat it to yourself (rehearse it) to keep it in your short-term memory long enough to dial it. If you don’t repeat it or use it in some way, it will be forgotten quickly. 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- Definition : Long-term memory is where information is stored for an extended period (from hours to a lifetime) and has a much larger capacity than short-term memory. Information in long-term memory is stored more permanently and can be retrieved later.
- Purpose : It allows us to retain experiences, facts, skills, and knowledge over time, making them accessible for future use.
- Example : The memory of your first day at school, a childhood friend’s name, or how to ride a bicycle are all stored in your long-term memory. You may not think about them constantly, but they are available for recall when needed. These types of memory work together to help us process, retain, and retrieve information effectively. Sensory memory takes in the information, short-term memory processes it for immediate use, and long-term memory stores important information for later retrieval.
- Define the following kinds of memory. (Lessons 3.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4) o Semantic: Semantic memory refers to the memory of general facts, concepts, and knowledge about the world. It is not tied to specific events or experiences. o Episodic: Episodic memory is the memory of specific events or experiences in one's life, including the time and place they occurred. It is often associated with personal, autobiographical experiences. o Explicit: Explicit memory, also known as declarative memory, involves conscious recall of information, including both semantic and episodic memory. It is memory that we can consciously access and verbalize. o Implicit: Implicit memory refers to unconscious memory processes that influence our behavior without conscious awareness. It includes procedural memory (skills and habits), classical conditioning, and priming.
Guide
Psychology
Page 16 of
Big Five Personality Traits This personality model is known as OCEAN or CANOE, and describes these five factors in a way that helps people understand personality Hans Eysenck’s Three-Factor Model of Personality This personality has only three ‘super factors’ or personality dimensions: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism
- Define the major influences on personality with examples. (Lessons 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6) Temperament :
- Definition : Temperament refers to the innate traits that influence how individuals react emotionally and behaviorally to different situations. These traits are typically present from birth and are thought to be biologically based.
- Example : A child who is naturally more relaxed and easygoing (easy temperament) may handle stressful situations better than a child who is more irritable and difficult to calm down (difficult temperament). These differences are part of the child's inherent temperament, which influences their personality development. Gender :
- Definition : Gender influences personality through societal expectations and roles associated with being male, female, or non-binary. Gender roles can shape behavior, preferences, and how individuals express emotions or handle situations.
- Example : A person socialized as a male may be encouraged to display traits such as assertiveness and independence, while someone socialized as a female may be encouraged to show empathy and nurturing behavior. These social influences shape how gender identity impacts personality. Culture :
- Definition : Culture influences personality by shaping norms, values, behaviors, and ways of thinking that individuals learn from their society. Cultural background can affect attitudes, communication styles, and the emphasis on individual vs. group achievement.
- Example : In collectivist cultures, such as Japan, people may place more value on harmony, family relationships, and community, which influences their personality traits to be more group-oriented and interdependent. In contrast, in individualist cultures like the U.S., personal achievement and independence may be more emphasized. Genetics :
Guide
Psychology
Page 17 of
- Definition : Genetics play a significant role in the development of personality by influencing inherited traits such as temperament, intelligence, and predispositions to certain behaviors or mental health conditions.
- Example : Twin studies show that identical twins often have similar personalities despite being raised in different environments, indicating that genetics can strongly influence personality. Traits such as being more extroverted or introverted can have a genetic basis.
- Define these major components of social cognition. (Lesson 6.1, 6.2) Attitudes and Behavior:
- Definition: Attitudes are evaluations or feelings towards people, objects, or ideas, and they often influence our behavior. Behavior can be aligned with our attitudes, but not always, as sometimes external factors or social pressures may influence behavior.
- Example : If someone has a positive attitude towards exercise (valuing fitness), they may be more likely to engage in physical activity. However, external factors like a lack of time or energy can still influence whether they actually go to the gym. Cognitive Dissonance:
- Definition: Cognitive dissonance is the psychological discomfort that occurs when a person holds two or more contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. This inconsistency creates tension, and individuals are motivated to reduce it.
- Example: If someone believes smoking is harmful (attitude) but continues to smoke (behavior), they may feel cognitive dissonance. To reduce this discomfort, they might change their attitude (e.g., convincing themselves that smoking isn’t as harmful as people say) or change their behavior (e.g., quitting smoking). Persuasion:
- Definition: Persuasion involves attempting to change someone’s beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors through communication. It is a process that can occur through direct or subtle means and can be influenced by various factors, such as the message content, source credibility, and the emotions evoked.
- Example : An advertisement for a product may use a celebrity endorsement to persuade people to buy the product, or a political campaign might use emotional appeals to influence voters' opinions.
- What are the three components of attitude? (Lesson 6.1) Attitude consists of three components, often referred to as the ABC model :
- Affective Component : This refers to the emotional or feeling aspect of an attitude. It’s how we feel about something. o Example : "I feel happy when I think about spending time with my friends."
- Behavioral Component : This refers to how the attitude influences our actions or behaviors toward the object or person. o Example : "Because I feel happy spending time with my friends, I make an effort to spend time with them regularly."
- Cognitive Component : This refers to the beliefs or thoughts we have about the object or person. o Example : "I believe that spending time with friends is important for my well-being."
- What is cognitive dissonance and how to we reduce it? (Lessons 6.1, 6.2)
Guide
Psychology
Page 19 of
Belief in a just world the belief in a just world is the cognitive bias that assumes that people get what they deserve, and that bad things happen to people because they must have done something to deserve it. Key characteristics of relationships. (Lessons 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4) Attraction is the feeling of being drawn to someone, often based on physical appearance, similarity, proximity, and other factors. Social-exchange theory Social-exchange theory suggests that relationships are formed and maintained based on a cost-benefit analysis, where individuals seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs. Companionate vs. passionate love Companionate love is a deep, affectionate attachment based on mutual respect and friendship, while passionate love is characterized by intense emotional and physical attraction. Sternberg’s theory of love Sternberg’s triangular theory of love suggests that love consists of three components: intimacy (emotional closeness), passion (physical attraction), and commitment (long- term dedication). Different combinations of these elements create different types of love. Attachment theory Attachment theory explains how early relationships with caregivers influence our patterns of attachment in later relationships. People may develop secure, anxious, or avoidant attachment styles based on their early experiences. Critical research about conformity and obedience. (Lessons 9.1, 9.2, 9.3) Conformity Conformity is the act of adjusting one's behavior or beliefs to match those of a group or to fit in with societal norms. Norms are the unwritten rules or expectations about how people should behave in a particular social group or culture. Asch’s study Solomon Asch's conformity experiment demonstrated that people are likely to conform to group opinions, even if they are clearly incorrect, when they are in a group setting. Obedience is the act of following direct commands or instructions from an authority figure. Milgram’s study Stanley Milgram’s famous study demonstrated that individuals are likely to follow authority figures even when it involves causing harm to others, as seen in his experiment with participants administering shocks to others. Important characteristics of group dynamics and behaviors. (Lessons 10.1, 10.2, 10.3) Group polarization Group polarization occurs when individuals in a group make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of the group members. Groupthink is a phenomenon where the desire for harmony and conformity in a group leads to irrational or dysfunctional decision-making. Social loafing refers to the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone. Social facilitation is the tendency for people to perform tasks better when they are in the presence of others, especially for simple or well-practiced tasks. Altruism is the selfless concern for the well-being of others, often leading to helping behavior without expecting anything in return. Bystander effect is the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in an emergency situation when other people are present.
Guide
Psychology
Page 20 of
Prejudice: refers to a negative attitude or judgment toward an individual or group based on their membership in a particular group (e.g., race, ethnicity, gender, etc.), without sufficient evidence or personal experience. It often involves stereotypes and leads to biased opinions. Discrimination: is the unfair or unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership in a particular group. It occurs when prejudicial attitudes influence actions, leading to the exclusion or mistreatment of others. Realistic conflict theory: suggests that intergroup conflict arises when groups compete for limited resources, such as land, jobs, or political power. This competition leads to increased prejudice and discrimination between groups. Characteristics of group dynamics and behaviors. (Lessons 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4) Ingroup vs. outgroup –
- Ingroup: A group to which a person feels they belong, often characterized by shared interests, values, or characteristics. People tend to favor their ingroup and show a sense of loyalty or solidarity.
- Outgroup: A group to which a person does not belong. People may hold negative views or biases toward members of outgroups, perceiving them as different or inferior. Self-fulfilling prophecy - A psychological phenomenon where a belief or expectation about a person or group leads to actions that cause that belief to become true. For example, if someone is expected to fail, they might be treated in ways that hinder their success, thus fulfilling the expectation. Implicit prejudice - Unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual's understanding, actions, and decisions, even if they are not overtly aware of them. These biases often influence behavior in subtle ways, particularly toward groups based on race, gender, or other characteristics. Stereotype threat - The psychological condition that occurs when individuals are aware of a stereotype about their social group and fear confirming that stereotype, leading to anxiety or performance declines. For example, a woman might perform worse on a math test due to anxiety about gender- based stereotypes. Attribution theory - A psychological theory that explains how individuals interpret and attribute causes to events, particularly concerning the behavior of themselves and others. Attributions can be internal (due to personality) or external (due to situational factors). Fundamental Attribution Error - A cognitive bias that leads people to overestimate the role of internal factors (such as personality) and underestimate the role of external factors (such as the situation) in explaining others' behavior. For example, if someone cuts you off in traffic, you might think they are rude, rather than considering that they might be in a rush. Self-serving bias - The tendency to attribute positive events or successes to internal factors (like personal abilities or efforts) and negative events or failures to external factors (such as luck or circumstances). This helps maintain a positive self-image. Belief in a just world - A cognitive bias where individuals believe that the world is fundamentally fair, and that people get what they deserve. This belief often leads to blaming victims for their misfortunes (e.g., assuming a person who is poor must have done something to deserve it). Key characteristics of relationships. (Lessons 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4) Attraction refers to the feelings or force that draws people together in relationships, whether romantic, platonic, or professional. It is often influenced by physical, emotional, intellectual, or social factors. Key components of attraction include physical appearance, similarity, proximity, and reciprocity. Social-exchange theory A theory in social psychology that views relationships as a form of economic exchange, where individuals weigh the costs and benefits of their interactions. People are more likely to stay in relationships that offer more rewards than costs (such as support, love, or companionship). The theory also suggests that relationships will end when the perceived costs
