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1. Structure and function of the cellular components:
Nucleus: Largest cytoplasmic organelle
2. Structure and function of the cellular components:
Plasma Membrane: Encloses cells in a barrier made of protein and lipid- highly selective. Endocytosis- phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor mediated, exocytosis.
3. Structure and function of the cellular components:
Cellular Receptors: Cells must have receptors for ligands to produce response. Intra-cellular receptor-mediated responses- used in lipid-soluble hormones (steroid hormones, cortisol and aldosterone), located inside the cell.
4. Structure and function of the cellular components:
Nucleolus: Makes/assembles ribosomes. rRNA synthesis, contains genetic infor- mation of cell (DNA)
5. Structure and function of the cellular components:
Mitochondria: Makes energy- ATP; plays a role in apoptosis.
6. Structure and function of the cellular components:
Ribosomes: Made in the nucleolus
7. Structure and function of the cellular components:
Lysosomes: "Lysol"- waste management- uses digestive enzymes to break
down the things not needed in cells.
8. Structure and function of the cellular components:
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Smooth and Rough- transports, rough has ribosomes, smooth does not.
9. Structure and function of the cellular components:
Golgi apparatus: Packaging proteins, end of ER
10. Structure and function of the cellular components: Lipid
Bilayer: Cholesterol, phospholipids, glycolipids Contains hydrophobic, and hydrophilic layers.
11. Regarding cells, what is the function of proteins?: Execute most of the
membrane's functions, including transport and signal transduction.
12. What are Gap Junctions?: space between neurons; cell signaling for
synchro- nized functions.
13. Cell growth and proliferation: cell replication, old and damaged cells are
replaced by new cells, regulated to keep balance between birth and death of cells, turned on and off using genes
14. Mitosis: part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus
divides responsible for proliferation of body cells in which little genetic variations are
15. Meiosis: Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually
reproducing organisms
16. DNA replication: Copies chromosomes, purpose to make protein- only
20,000 codes for proteins.
17. Action potential: rapid changes in the membrane potential that occur in ex-
citable cells- neurons and muscles, allowing for the transmission of electrical signals along their membranes. Plays a role in nerve conduction and muscle contraction.
18. Depolarization: The process during the action potential when sodium is
rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.
19. Repolarization: Return of the cell to resting state, caused by reentry of
potas- sium into the cell while sodium exits the cell.
20. Absolute Refractory Period: The minimum length of time after an action
po- tential during which another action potential cannot begin.
21. Atrophy: Same number of cells but shrink and reduce functions
22. Hypertrophy: increase in cell size (Same number of
cells) Ex: Splenomegaly, cardiomegaly, weight lifting
23. Hyperplasia: increase in number of cells (Stay the same
size) Ex: Monthly periods
24. Metaplasia: Mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell
type This is fully reversible
25. Dysplasia: abnormal development or growth of cells, tissues, or organs
26. Impact of radiation on cell damage: DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis,
cell death
27. Coagulative Necrosis: Cell proteins are altered or denatured- typically in
kid- neys
28. Fat Necrosis: Breast, pancreas, and other abdominal
organs Action of lipases
29. Liquefactive Necrosis: commonly results from ischemic injury to nerve and
glial cells in brain; injured cells release hydrolases that digests brain tissue; tissue becomes soft, liquefies, and segregates, forming cysts. May be caused by staph, strep, or E. coli infections.
30. Caseous Necrosis: degeneration and death of tissue with a cheese-like
ap- pearance *Ghon Complex
31. What type of necrosis is TB?: Combo of coagulative and liquefactive- hard
shell on outside, and liquid inside.
32. Hydrostatic pressure: the pressure within a blood vessel that tends to
push water out of the vessel
33. Osmosis: Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable
34. Diffusion: Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration.
35. Active Transport: Energy-requiring (ATP) process that moves material
across a cell membrane against a concentration difference
36. Sodium Impact on a cell?: Homeostasis, action potential generation, cell
volume regulation, cell signaling, active transport. Active transport allows sodi- um-potassium pump to move Na out and K in
37. Patho/Cause/S+S:
Hypovolemia: Decreased blood volume in body due to fluid loss. Caused by dehy- dration, hemorrhagic, GI losses and burns. S/S: Tachycardia, Low BP, decreased urine output, shock, ALOC, cool clammy skin.
38. Patho/Cause/S+S:
Hypervolemia: Increased blood volume in body, due to excess fluid intake. Cause: Heart failure, kidney failure, liver cirrhosis, hormonal imbalances. S/S: edema, weight gain, Becks Triad, hypertension, JVD, diminished heart sounds, SOB
39. Cause/S+S: Hyponatremia: Decreased Na <135, caused by diuretics, exces-
sive V/D. S/S: muscle weakness, ALOC, seizures, peripheral/cerebral edema
40. Cause/S+S: Hypernatremia: High Na >145 caused by corticosteroids and de-
hydration. S/S: confusion, spasms, dehydration.
41. Cause/S+S: Hyperkalemia: easy depolarization, harder repolarization
Increased K > 5.0 caused by renal failure, rhabdomyolysis, hypoaldosteronism, acidosis, burns. S/S: paralysis and weakness
42. Cause/S+S: Hypokalemia: Low K, < 3.5 caused by diuretics and hyperaldos-
teronism. S/S: cramps and arrythmias.
43. Cause/S+S: Hypocalcemia: Low calcium < 8.5 caused by decreased magne-
sium, liver failure, *hypoparathyroidism. S/S: Chvostek's (Cheek) and Trousseau Sign (BP cuff contracts arm) Rickett's, osteomalacia muscle cramps,
44. Cause/S+S: Hypercalcemia: Increased Ca > 12, caused by kidney stones*,
immobility, *hyperparathyroidism, Padgett's disease, antacids.
45. Acid-Base: CO2+H2O -> carbonic acid -> bicarb +
H CO2 + H2O -> carbonic acid is lung. Carbonic acid -> bicarb +H is kidney. More bicarb= more basic (High pH), less bicarb = more acidic (low pH)
Alzheimer, septal defects. Increase risk with maternal age.
53. Cri Du Chat: Deletion of chromosome 5, high-pitched cry in infancy,
micro- cephaly, wide set eyes, low set ears, recessed jaw, hypotonia
54. Turner Syndrome: Women only, X no Y. Chromosome 45 XO. S/S: webbed
neck, swollen hands, short stature, no breast development widely spaced nipples, infertility, needs GH and estrogen.
55. Klinefelter syndrome: A chromosomal disorder in which males have an
extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY. both male and female charac- teristics, infertility, decreased testosterone, gynecomastia (risk breast CA), needs chromosomal testing, tx: TRT. Chromosome 47
56. G6PD deficiency: X-linked recessive affecting RBC leading to hemolytic
ane- mia. Fatigue, pallor, jaundice.
57. Von Willebrand Disease: bleeding disorder caused by a deficiency of von
Willebrand factor, a "sticky" protein that lines blood vessels and reacts with platelets to form a plug that leads to clot formation
58. Fragile X Syndrome: A genetic disorder in which part of the X chromosome
seems to be attached to the rest of it by a very thin string of molecules. The cause is a single gene that has more than 200 repetitions of one triplet. Features include long face with prominent jaw and forehead, large ears, enlarged testes. S/S: language deficits, ADHD, speech delay, autistic
behavior, social and behavioral challenges
59. Burkitt Lymphoma: t(8;14); EBV association; common childhood NHL;
"starry sky" appearance
66. PKU: A human metabolic disease caused by a mutation in a gene
coding for a phenylalanine processing enzyme (phenylalanine hydroxylase), which leads to accumulation of phenylalanine and mental retardation if not treated; inherited as an autosomal recessive phenotype. Why you get non-disjunctions
67. X-Linked Dominant: a mode of genetic inheritance by which a dominant
gene is carried on the X chromosome-both male and females EX: Rhett's Syndrome and Ricketts
68. Sex Linked Disorders: hemophilia, color blindness, muscular dystrophy-
oc- curs in males
69. Antigens: a toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune
response in the body, especially the production of antibodies.
70. Antibodies: Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches
to a specific antigen. They only MARK and CLUMP
71. Where are antibodies produced?: plasma cells (Activated B cells)
72. Where are B cells produced?: produced and mature in bone marrow
73. Where do B cells live?: Medulla of lymph node
74. How do B cells protect the host?: opsonization- binds to pathogen/antigen
and causes agglutination, then die off besides memory T/B cells.
PG which causes vasodilation which brings water, creating a pathway for more back up and slows down bacteria (swelling). Mainly for back up bacteria.
83. T lymphocytes: Naïve T cells are activated by dendritic cells and
macrophages then copy themselves (clonal selection) T- Helper: support other cells and activate B cells. Cytotoxic Cells: kills antigens- one specific target (assassin/hitman") Regulatory T-Cells: prevent autoimmune disease "police" patrol the blood. Memory T cell: prevent future attacks and don't die. Mainly for viruses
84. B lymphocytes: Naïve B-cell activated by T-Helper cell=plasma cells
which produce antibodies. Memory B cells- prevent future attacks and don't die. Natural killer cells: Specific; mainly for viruses
85. Eosinophils: Present in parasitic infections and allergic reactions
86. Neutrophils: A type of white blood cell that engulfs invading microbes
and contributes to the nonspecific defenses of the body against disease.
87. Basophils: A circulating leukocyte that produces
histamine. Allergies, histamine, mast cells, and parasitic
infections
88. Which leukocytes are granulated?: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
89. What happens when all leukocytes are elevated?: Shows a sign of infection or
inflammation, stress or physiological response
(haemophilus influenzae), TB, skin infections (Staphylococcus).
95. Types of Infection:
virus:: Flu influenza A or B, Common cold (RSV, rhinovirus, adenovirus), COVID- 19, HSV (herpes complex), HIV, EBV.
96. Flu S/S: Flu S/S: fever, chills, muscle/body aches, nausea, vomiting,
fatigue.
97. Sore Throat Caused and S/S: Sore throat: caused by EBV, rhinovirus, aden-
ovirus. S/S: difficulty swallowing, pain and irritation in throat, redness and inflamma- tion
98. Strep Throat cause and S/S: Strep Throat: Streptococcus A S/S: severe throat
pain, red and swollen tonsils, fever, swollen lymph nodes.
99. Types of Infection:
fungal:: Yeast infections (Candida albicans), ringworm
100. Types of Infection:
parasites:: Malaria, giardia, toxoplasmosis.
101. Three stages of stress: alarm, resistance, exhaustion
Alarm: stressor disrupts body's stability. Temporarily lowering resistance. "Fight or flight" Resistance: Adaptation resources are mobilized to combat stressor, and body maintains a higher level of resistance
Exhaustion: body runs out of adaptation energy stores for adjusting to stressor, and resistance drops below normal
