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CHEM 1030 FINAL EXAM CERTIFICATION
EVALUATION SCRIPT 2026 FULL SOLUTION
โ Distillation. Answer: Separates a homogeneous mixture based on differences in boiling points. โ Chromatography (paper). Answer: Separates substances on the basis of differences in solubility in a solvent. โ Intensive Properties. Answer: Independent of the amount of substance present.
- Density, boiling point โ Extensive Properties. Answer: Dependent on the amount of substance present.
- Mass, volume. โ Atomic Number and Mass Number. Answer: โ Isotopes. Answer: Atoms with identical atomic numbers but different mass numbers
โ Mole. Answer: : the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g C- 12 โ Avogadro's Number (NA). Answer: 6.0221418 x10^ โ Electrostatic energy. Answer: potential energy that results from the interaction of charged particle โ Quantized energy (Max Planck). Answer: Energy can be absorbed or released from atoms only in certain amounts (quanta). โ Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. Answer: the more precisely the momentum (mu) of a particle is known, the less precisely its position (x) is known โ Principal Quantum Number (n). Answer: designates size of the orbital (shell)
- n values are integers > โ Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l). Answer: describes the shape of the orbital (subshells)
- l values are integers ranging from 0 to n โ 1 for each value of n
โ Effective Nuclear Charge Trends. Answer: Row (left to right across a period), Zeff increases
- Z increases, but the # of core electrons does not change Column (going down a group), Zeff increases slightly
- larger Z has a larger electron core which is not capable to shield the outer electrons effectively โ Metallic radius. Answer: half the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent, identical metal atoms โ Covalent radius. Answer: half the distance between adjacent, identical nuclei connected by a chemical bond โ Atomic Radius Trends. Answer: Row (left to right across a period): decreases due to increasing Zeff Group (from top to bottom): increases due to increasing value of n โ Ionization Energy Trends. Answer: Group (top to bottom): IE decreases down a group. Valence electrons are farther from the nucleus
Row (left to right across a period): IE generally increases across a period. Zeff increases across a period โ Electron Affinity (EA). Answer: the energy released when an atom in the gas phase accepts an electron. โ Electron Affinity Trends. Answer: Group (top to bottom): EA generally becomes less positive.
- the size increases Row (left to right across a period): EA generally becomes more positive.
- Zeff increases across a period โ Isoelectronic series. Answer: series of two or more species that have identical electron configurations, but different nuclear charges
- the radius decreases with increasing nuclear charge. โ Compounds. Answer: substance composed of two or more elements combined in a specific ratio
B that combine with 1 gram of element A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers. โ Nomenclature of Molecular Compounds. Answer: 1. Name the first element that appears in the formula.
- Oxygen is always written last, except when combined with fluoride
- Name the second element that appears in the formula, changing its ending to - ide.
- greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each element in the molecule
- mono- is not used with the first element listed
- if the prefix ends in a or o and the name of the 2nd element begins with a vowel, the a or o of the prefix is often dropped โ Greek Prefixes. Answer: Mono- 1 Di- 2 Tri- 3 Tetra- 4 Penta- 5 Hexa- 6 Hepta- 7 Octa- 8 Nona- 9
Deca- 10 โ Molecular Mass. Answer: sum of the atomic masses of the atoms in a molecular formula (molecules) โ Formula Mass. Answer: sum of the atomic masses of the atoms in a chemical formula (formula units) โ Bond length. Answer: the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms. โ Bond strength. Answer: required to break the bond. shorter multiple bonds are stronger than single bonds โ Electronegativity. Answer: the ability of an atom in a compound to draw electrons to itself
- Non polar: < 0.5,
- 0.5 โค polar < 2
- Ionic โฅ 2 โ Unit of ฮผ. Answer: debyes (D)
- 1D = 3.336 x 10-30 Cโขm (Coulombโขmeter)
โ Ion-Dipole interactions. Answer: coulombic attractions between ions (either positive or negative) and polar molecules โ Valence Bond Theory. Answer: atoms share electrons when atomic orbitals overlap โ Hybridization. Answer: the mixing of atomic orbitals to form hybrid orbitals.
- The # of hybrid orbitals formed on an atom = the # of atomic orbitals that are mixed.
- The type of hybridization is related to the 5 basic electron-domain geometries โ paramagnetic species. Answer: - contain one or more unpaired electrons
- attracted to magnetic fields โ diamagnetic species. Answer: - contain no unpaired electrons
- are weakly repelled by magnetic fields โ Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory. Answer: - the number of molecular orbitals obtained equals the number of atomic orbitals combined
- each MO contains a maximum of 2 electrons
- have specific energies
- are associated with an entire molecule โ Alkali Metal trends. Answer: Low IE: easily loses electrons to form M+ reactivity increases going down the group โ Alkaline Earth Metal trends. Answer: - Form M2+
- reactivity increases going down the group โ Halogen trends. Answer: - diatomic
- high IE, high positive EA; attract electrons โ Noble Gas trends. Answer: - monatomic gases at RTP
- almost unreactive โ Solution. Answer: Homogeneous mixture of two or more substances (solvent and solute) โ Electrolyte. Answer: substance that dissolves in water to yield a solution that conducts electricity โ Nonelectrolyte. Answer: a substance that dissolves in water to yield a solution that does not conduct electricity
- reduction: gain of electrons โ Rules for assigning oxidation numbers. Answer: 1. Atoms in their elemental form have an oxidation number of 0 (zero). This includes all diatomic molecules.
- The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same as its charge.
- Hydrogen is โ1 when bonded to a metal, +1 when bonded to a nonmetal.
- Oxygen is usually โ2, except in the peroxides in which it has an oxidation number of โ1.
- Fluoride is always - 1, but other halogens can have states from - 1, +1, +3, +5, to +7.
- The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is 0.
- The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion. โ Concentration. Answer: the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or solution โ Thermochemistry. Answer: the study of heat associated with chemical reactions
โ Exothermic. Answer: heat is released by the system to the surroundings โ Endothermic. Answer: heat is absorbed from the surroundings by the system โ Internal Energy (U) of a System. Answer: the sum of all kinetic and potential energies of all its components โ State Function. Answer: property that depend only on the present state of the system, not on the path by which the system arrived at that state โ Enthalpy (H). Answer: the heat flow between system and surroundings during a chemical reaction at constant pressure โ Specific heat (s). Answer: the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 degree Celsius โ Hess's law. Answer: If a reaction is carried out in a series of steps, H for the overall reaction is the sum of the enthalpy changes of the individual steps
โ Diffusion. Answer: the mixing of gases as the result of random motion and frequent collisions โ Effusion. Answer: the escape of gas molecules from container to a region of vacuum โ Pressure. Answer: the amount of force applied to an area
- SI unit: Pascal โ Boyle's Law. Answer: At constant T and n: VP=k(constant) โ Charles's Law. Answer: At constant P and n: V/T=k(constant) โ Avogadro's Law. Answer: At constant T and P: V=kn โ Dalton's law of partial pressure. Answer: the total pressure exerted by a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures exerted by each component of the mixture
โ Surface Tension. Answer: the amount of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area โ Viscosity. Answer: a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow
- the stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the viscosity
- The higher temperature, the lower the viscosity โ Dynamic equilibrium. Answer: liquid molecules evaporate and vapor molecules condense at the same rate โ Vapor Pressure. Answer: the pressure exerted when liquid and vapor states are in dynamic equilibrium โ molar heat of vaporization. Answer: the amount of heat required to vaporize a mole of substance at its boiling point โ molar heat of fusion. Answer: the amount of energy required to melt a mole of solid โ Critical temperature of a substance. Answer: the temperature above which its gas cannot be liquified โ Critical pressure. Answer: the minimum pressure needed to liquefy a substance at its critical temperature
