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CHAPTER ONE
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
1. WRITE A NOTE ON:
a. GUISEPPE MAZZINI : He was born in Genoa in 1807 and became a member of the secret society in Carbonari. He is the pioneer behind the unification of Italy. He believed that Italy should not be a patch work of nations but instead its unification would lead to its liberty. He was the most feared especially by the conservatives for his democratic vision and opposition to monarchy. He founded a secret society ‘YOUNG ITALY’ to work for the unification of Italy. b. COUNT CAMILLO DE CAVOUR: Cavour was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. He belonged to the Italian Elite and spoke fluent French than Italian like the elites of his time. He lead the movement for the unification of Italy. Sardinia- Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces because of the secret alliance that Cavour did with France and gained their support. c. THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE: Since 15th^ century, Greece had been the part of Ottoman empire. It had always been known as the Cradle of any civilization. Its struggle for independence from the Muslim empire gained support not only from the Greeks living in exile, but also from West Europe. Many poets and artists who wanted to preserve the ancient culture too supported Greek’s struggle for independence. Finally the Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation. d. THE FRANKFURT PARLIAMENT: The middle class professionals, business men and some of the prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an All German National Assembly. On 18th^ May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the church of St. Paul. But when it was presented to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, the King of Prussia, he rejected it and joined the other monarchs to oppose the assembly. e. THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATIONALIST STRUGGLES: Women have always had a dominant role in nationalist struggles. During the French Revolution, it was the women who were in the lead when the Prison of Bastille was stormed. But when the question arose as to the granting of political rights to women, the controversies were many. Some argued that women could not be given any political rights as her place was to nuture the family and being weak and timid could not take part in political decisions. But women had formed their own political associations and had taken part in public demonstrations and meetings demanded that equality of sexes was most important for liberty to be successful.
2. WHAT STEPS DID THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARIES TAKE TO
CREATE A SENSE OF COLLECTIVE IDENTITY AMONG THE FRENCH
PEOPLE?
From the very beginning the French revolutionaries worked for bringing about a collective identity. The ideas of a fatherland and a citizen were introduced to bring about a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. The French flag was changed to a tricolor, the national assembly became a body of elected members elected by active citizens. National hymns were written. Oaths were taken in the name of the nation. All the martyrs were commemorated. Uniform laws were formed by a centralised administrative system. Uniform weights and measures were adopted and different types of custom duties and dues were abolished. French that was spoken in Paris was encouraged while regional dialects were discouraged. France became an example for all the other European nations to follow to route out monarchy.
3. WHO WERE MARIANNE AND GERMANIA? WHAT WAS THE IMPORANCE OF THE WAY IN WHICH THEY WERE POTRAYED? Marianne and Germania were the allegories of France and Germany respectively. For France the allegory was christened Marianne which was a popular name which underlined the idea of a people’s nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of liberty and republic- the red cap, the tricolor and cockade. The statues of Marianne were erected in all prominent places and printed on stamps and coins to remind the people of national unity. Germania became the allegory of Germany. She wears a crown of oak leaves as in Germany oak leaves represent heroism. The broken chains near her feet signify freedom. The breast plate with eagle symbol that she wears symbolises the german empire i.e. the strength. The sword that she holds signifies her readiness to fight and the olive branch around the sword signifies her willingness to make peace. The black, red and gold tricolor that she holds is the flag of the liberal nationalists in 1848. The rays of the rising sun symbolises the beginning of a new era. 4. BRIEFLY TRACE THE PROCESS OF GERMAN UNIFICATION?
immediate results. The old social order was disbanded and the workers and farmers who were always repressed were given concessions and political equality.
2. CHOOSE THREE EXAMPLES TO SHOW THE CONTRIBUTION OF CULTURE TO THE GROWTH OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE. The growth of nationalism among the people from various countries of Europe came not only through war and territorial expansion but mainly through culture, language, folk tales, folk dances, music etc. To develop nationalist sentiment these felt the need to create a sense of shared collective heritage, common cultural past etc. For example German Philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder explained that true German culture could be found among the common folk. So collecting and recording the folk songs, poetry, dance etc would help in true nation building. Vernacular language too played an important role in nation building. The nationalist message to the vast majority who were illiterate was conveyed through the language they spoke and understood. This is true especially in the case of Poland. When Russia occupied Poland, Russian language was imposed. The use and retaining of Polish language became a symbol of struggle against Russia. In Germany the brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm spent six years going from village to village collecting the local folk tales handed down from generations through the word of mouth and presented the Grimms Fairy Tales. Thus culture has played a prominent role in retaining nationalism in any region and help in nation building. 3. THROUGH A FOCUS ON ANY TWO COUNTRIES, EXPLAIN HOW NATIONS DEVELOPED OVER THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. During the 19 th^ century two most important nations united as nation states and developed providing an example to the whole of Europe. Germany: The nationalist feeling among the common folk of Germany was most wide spread but was supressed by military and aristocracy with the help from the large land owners of Prussia. Prussia started to have an active participation in the nation building and unification of Germany. Otto von Bismarck can be named as the chief architect behind German unification. The Prussian Emperor William I was proclaimed the Emperor of Germany. With German unification the country’s modernising process began with right earnest. The currency was modernised
along with banking, legal and judiciary. The German unification and modernisation based on Prussian lines soon was taken up by the rest of Europe. Italy: Italy was totally a fragmented state. The people of Italy were spread over a large area and even the language was spoken with many variations. Guiseppe Mazzini tried to unify Italy by using his secret society called “young Italy” to pursue his goals. But the failure duing the uprisings led to the Ruler of Sardinia- Peidmont, Victor Emmanuel II to unify the state of Italy through war. Chief Minister Cavour and Guiseppe Garibaldi can be named as the main architects behind the unification of Italy. The unification led to the development of Italy at a very fast pace.
4. HOW WAS THE HISTORY OF NATIONALISM IN BRITAIN UNLIKE THE REST OF EUROPE? The building of nation state of Britain was a long drawn out process which was neither overnight nor was the end result of any revolution. Britain did not exist before the 18 th^ century. The primary identities were English, Welsh, Scot, Irish. They had their own cultural and political traditions. But as the English nation grew steadily in wealth and importance, it was able to extend its influence over the other nations of the islands. The Act of Union(1707) between England and Scotland saw England imposing on Scotland its influence. The people of Scotland had to give up their distinct culture and political institutions. This highlanders were forbidden to speak their gaelic language or wear their national dress. Even Ireland suffered the same fate. Ireland which was divided between the protestants and catholics, protestants were helped to establish their dominance. The revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen was suppressed and a new English nation was forged through the propogation of a dominant English culture. The English symbols - The Union Jack, the National Anthem(God save our noble king) and English language were actively encouraged and older nations survived only as sub-ordinate partners. 5. WHY DID NATIONALIST TENSIONS EMERGE IN THE BALKANS? Balkans was a region of ethinic variations. Countries of modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro, were consisting of distinct culture and traditions. A large part of the Balkans was under the Ottoman empire and the efforts of the Ottoman Empire to bring about modernization came with little success. The slow disintegration of the once powerful Ottoman empire gave opportunity to it European subjugated nations to seek independence. The area of Balkans became highly explosive with the Balkans demanding independence based on their
CHAPTER TWO
NATIONALISM IN INDIA
GIVE REASONS FOR THE FOLLOWING:
a. WHY GROWTH OF NATIONALISM IN THE COLONIES IS LINKED TO AN ANTI-COLONIAL MOVEMENT? While in Europe nation states were being forged, the countries of Asia and Africa were feeling the oppression of colonial rule. Each area felt the oppression differently, so also each class and also people but they were all united under a single bond that is fighting against the oppression of the colonial rule. This fight against the colonial rule by different colonies is called anti-colonial movement. The people of the colonies for the first time felt a new feeling grow that is the feeling for their nation or nationalism. Their fight against colonial oppressors united them not only as a single person but also as a single nation. In Europe the rise of nationalism rose to fight the monarchy but in colonies nationalism rose to fight the imperialists who were oppressing the people of the colonies. b. HOW THE I WORLD WAR HELP IN THE GROWTH OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT IN INDIA? The I world war was the first war in history to involve almost all the countries of the world either directly or indirectly. India though had not wanted to take part in the war, she was indirectly involved. The money imposed as taxes were invested in the war. The prices of almost all commodities were increased to pay for the war. The peasants who should have been involved in the agricultural activity were forcibly recruited as soldiers in the war. Coupled with increased taxes and forced recruitment the epidemics and famines hit hard on the people of India and built a bond to fight for the freedom of the country. The national movement was taken up with great fervour during and after the I world war. c. WHY THE INDIANS WERE OUTRAGED BY ROWLATT ACT?
The Rowlatt Act of 1919 had been passed by the Imperial Legislative Council even though there was strong opposition from its members. Rowlatt act was passed to give more powers to the government to repress political activities and also to go ahead with the detention of political prisoners for two years without trial. This Act proved to be a strong weapon in the hands of the government to suppress any kind of nationalist movement. Hartals erupted everywhere and martial law was imposed in Amritsar and then Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place when a peaceful meeting was fired upon by General Dyer. d. WHY GANDHIJI DECIDED TO WITHDRAW THE NON CO- OPERATION MOVEMENT? Gandhiji launched the non- co-operation movement along with khilafat movement not only to support the muslims but also to provide impetus to the nationalist movement. This movement was deciphered in various ways. In towns the middle class boycotted schools, colleges and government offices. In the countryside the peasants wanted the writing off, of the rent and wanted the beggar work to cease. In the plantations, the workers wanted freedom of movement. Though Gandhiji had proposed non violent methods, people in various areas used violence. Things reached a boiling point when in 1922 in Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, a peaceful demonstration was attacked by policemen. The mob turned violent killing 22 policemen. Gandhiji decided to withdraw the non-co-operation movement as it had turned violent.
2. WHAT IS MEANT BY THE IDEA OF SATYAGRAHA? Satyagraha propagated truth and non violence. It propagated that to fight injustice, physical force was not necessary. Without seeking vengeance or being aggressive, a satyagrahi could win the battle through non violence. This could be done by appealing to the conscience of the oppressor. People including the oppressors had to be persuaded to see the truth, instead of being forced to accept the truth through violence. By this way of struggle, truth would triumph in the end. 3. WRITE A NEWSPAPER REPORT ON:- a. JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE:- By:-
strength, readiness to fight and willingness to make peace. Though the allegory is a female representation, is symbolises the heroic quality in a woman representing her willingness to take up the sword to protect anything that needs protection and belongs to her nation as in 1860 the artist Lorenz Clasen depicts Germania protecting the River Rhine with the inscription on the sword reading “the German sword protects the German Rhine.” The Indian allegory i.e. the Bharat Mata painted by Abanindranath Tagore in 1905 potrays her as an ascetic figure, she is calm, divine and spiritual. The rosary or the mala in one hand depicts her ascetic quality while she is dispensing food, clothing and through her other hands depicting mother nature. Thus where Germania depicts heroism and battle friendly, Bharat Mata depicts mother nature and ascetic qualities and is calm, divine and has spiritual qualities. DISCUSS:
1. LIST ALL THE DIFFERENT SOCIAL GROUPS WHICH , THEN CHOOSE ANY THREE AND WRITE ABOUT THEIR HOPES AND STRUGGLES TO SHOW WHY THEY JOINED THE MOVEMENT. Gandhiji initiated the non-co-operation movement along with the khilafat movement not only to show solidarity to the muslims but also to press for swaraj. The non-co-operation movement drew not only the hindus and the muslims but the middle class, the peasants, the tribals, the plantation workers alike. Each class had its aspirations and supported the non-co- operation movement to gain those aspirations. IN THE TOWNS: The middle class participated in towns and cities. Students left their schools and colleges , the teachers resigned, the lawers stopped practicing, foreign goods were boycotted and liquor shops were picketed. The traders stopped trading in foreign goods or financing foreign trade. The demand for indian manufactured goods especially cotton cloth went up. But over a period of time, this movement lost its zeal as the students who had left their schools and colleges did not find an alternate source to continue their studies, hence they joined back. The indian handloom was much costlier than the mill cloth and the indian poor
could not afford the indian hand loom. The teachers could not stay without pay for long nor the lawyers could stop practising hence it was back to the schools and courts again. IN THE COUNTRYSIDE: In the countryside, the peasants and the tribals participated in the struggle. The peasants were led by their leader Baba Ramchandra. Their struggle was against the landlords and talukdars. High rent was extorted from the peasant and he had to work on the lands of the landlord without any payment. The peasants demanded reduction of rent, abolition of begar work and social boycott of oppressive landlords. Even the barbers and washermen joined the agitation against the landlords. By 1921 the movement had turned violent. The houses of the talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazars were looted, hoards of grain were taken away. Gandhiji had advocated a non violent struggle but the name of Mahatma was used for use of violence in many parts. IN THE PLANTATIONS: The workers had their own interpretation of the Swaraj. For them freedom meant moving freely in the confined spaces. It also meant forging a link with the village they had come from. These plantation workers were rarely given permission to go to their villages. When the non- co-operation movement was announced, these workers believed that their would be Gandhi Raj and that there would be redistribution of land and hence they defied the authorities and left the plantations. They never reached their destinations as they were left stranded because of the railway and steamer strikes.
2. DISCUSS THE SALT MARCH TO MAKE CLEAR WHY IT WAS AN EFFECTIVE SYMBOL OF RESISTANCE AGAINST COLONIALISM. Tax had been imposed on salt and the government wanted to retain the monopoly of production of salt. Gandhiji wrote a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating 11 demands but the most important being the removing of the tax on salt and the government monopoly on the production of salt. Lord Irwin was unwilling to negotiate and as warned by Gandhiji, Civil Disobedience Movement was launched. Gandhiji in order to defy the salt law, marched to Dandi around 240 miles from his ashram at Sabarmati taking 78 of his followers. At Dandi he produced salt by boiling sea water. This march marked the beginning of Civil Disobedience movement. The people were asked to break the colonial laws. Salt was now manufactured
electorates, the nationalist leaders again differed sharply over this question stating that it would divide the country’s people based on caste. But when Dr.B.R.Ambedkar pressed for the demand, equal representation was promised but the candidate had to be elected through Universal Adult Franchise and not by a separate electorate.
CHAPTER 6
PRINT CULTURE AND MODERN WORLD
1. GIVE REASONS FOR THE FOLLOWING:
a. WOOD BLOCK PRINT ONLY CAME TO EUROPE AFTER 1295 Though China had been printing books since AD594, it could only reach Europe in 1295AD. Marco Polo the great explorer who spent many years in China, brought along with him a fund of knowledge and knowhow. One of these was woodblock printing which Italians used and started publishing books. Soon the knowhow spread to all of Europe. b. MARTIN LUTHER KING WAS IN FAVOUR OF PRINT AND SPOKE OUT IN PRAISE OF IT. When Martin Luther King protested against the church in his ninetyfive theses, a copy of it was printed and pasted on the church door and it challenged the church to debate his ideas. When Martin Luther King translated the New Testament, the demand rose and the second edition had to be reprinted. Martin Luther King acknowledged that the print had helped him to spread his ideas of the church and also helped in the spread of protestant reformation.
British government imposed the Vernacular Press Act in 1878 banning the use of vernacular language in the press and to push back the nationalist struggle. It gave the government extensive rights to control and censor the reports and editorials. If a report was judged to be seditious the press would be warned. But if the warning was ignored, then the press would be confiscated.
3. WHAT DID THE SPREAD OF PRINT CULTURE IN 19 TH^ CENTURY INDIA MEAN TO:- a. WOMEN: Print culture brought about a huge change on the life of women in India. Education and reading had been denied to the women from generations. With the printing and writing of books the middle class homes underwent an enormous change. Liberal husbands and fathers started educating the women and sent them to schools when girls schools came up. Many journals started carrying articles and stories written by women. But conservation Hindus and Muslims still denied education to women and still believed that it was not proper to educate women. Social reformers and novels played a leading role in the education of women. Women writers like Kailashbhashini Debi wrote for the cause of women and in Maharastra Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote about the miserable lives of the women. Soon literature in urdu, tamil, Bengali, and Marathi started working for the social reform of the women like education, remarriage. Issues were discussed to make the Indian woman financially independent. Books in Bengal were sold door to door to enable the women to read in their leisure time. b. POOR: In the 19th^ century cheap books were made available for the poor in madras. Libraries were set up by the affluent to help the poor to read and were mainly set up in towns and cities and in prosporous villeges. Jyotiba Phule, the Maratha pioneer of low caste prostested about the atrocities on the poor. The printing of books at low cost made it possible for social reformers to encourage the poor to defy caste discriminations. Workers in factories wrote about their experiences. Kashibaba in his book “Chote Aur Bade Ka Sawal” showed the links between caste and caste discrimination. By the 1930s the Bangalore mill workers set up libraries to educate themselves just like their counter parts in Bombay mills. c. THE REFORMERS: Early 19th^ century in India was witnessing the change in religion and was moving towards religious reform. Discussions, arguments were there between the religious orthodox and those who wanted to reform and these were printed and discussed on the newspapers and in everyday spoken language. Raja Ram Mohan Roy started his newspaper Sambad Kaumudi and to oppose him Samachar Chandrika was started by hindu orthodox. The Muslim Ulema deeply anxious that there may be conversions from Islam to other religion started printing translations from holy books in newspapers and tracts. The Deoband played a leading role in trying to discourage conversions and explaning the meaning and importance of religious texts. By the mid 19 th^ century a huge number of religious
DISCUSS
texts flooded the market bringing about a communion of people were debates and discussions were made on religion and without creating conflicting ideas. The print played a leading role in conveying the news from one place to another and creating Pan-Indian identities.
1. WHY DID SOME PEOPLE IN THE 18TH^ CENTURY EUROPE THINK THAT PRINT CULTURE WOULD BRING ENLIGHTENMENT AND END DESPOTISM? By mid 18th^ century there developed an opinion that books could be a means of bringing enlightenment and help the man to end despotism or tyranny of the monarchs. People also started beliving that books could help change the mindset of the common man. Novelist brought out stories where the main character who fight against the wrong doing in the world after being enlightened by the books. The reasons for this opinion were many. Print popularised the ideas of enlightened thinkers. Their writings were critically arguing about the social setup of those times. The tryanny of the monarchy, the immortality of the then social order, the question about the sacred authority of the church etc. These writings encouraged the common man to be questioning, critical about things and become a rational being. The books printed at that time created a new culture of dialogue and debate. The public was fast becoming an aware public which was now questioning the existing ideas and beliefs. Though there were counter thinkers who were with the aristocracy and the church, but the ball that was set rolling by the thinkers and writers and the print media which made it easy to reach the common man, the thinking of the people that print culture could enlighten the common man and despotism would end came true because the French Revolution brought an end to monarchy and brought a government which brought about equality of the masses. 2. WHY DID SOME PEOPLE FEAR THE EFFECT OF EASILY AVAILABLE PRINTED BOOKS? CHOOSE ONE EXAMPLE FROM EUROPE AND ONE FROM INDIA. By the development of printing, books were now easily available. The new ideas could now be circulated easily. Books started flooding the market with new ideas and opinion creating an apprehensive state of mind among the people that if there was no control over the type and quality of the material that was printed, it could corrupt the minds of the people. Where print media or written books were considered an authority in the field of knowledge, it could lead to rebellious and irreligious thoughts which may undermine even valuable literature. Even great writers and authors were anxious on the quality of literature that was widespread. For example in Europe popular religious books were available easily and this lead to wrongful interpretation of the Bible. In the 16th^ century Menochhio a miller in Italy read the books available in his locality and interpreted his own view of Bible and God. The orthodox church had an inquiry into the matter and he was eventually executed. The church then
CHAPTER THREE
THE RISE OF A GLOBAL WORLD
WRITE IN BRIEF
1. GIVE TWO EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF GLOBAL EXCHANGES
WHICH TOOK PLACE BEFORE THE 17TH^ CENTURY, CHOOSING ONE
EXAMPLE FROM ASIA AND ONE FROM THE AMERICAS.
Global exchanges have been taking place as early as 3000BC even during the Indus Valley Civilization. Costal trade link existed with countries of modern west Asia. Routes have been popular especially the “Silk Routes”. These routes were known as the silk routes because of
chinese silk cargoes that moved over not only on land by sea also bringing together various regions of Asia, Europe and northern Africa. Chinese silk, pottery, spices from India and south east Asia travelled especially to Europe along these routes. The Christian Missionaries, the Muslim Preachers and the Bhuddist Bhikus also used these routes to spread the message of their religion. It’s also known that food and crops too travelled vast distances and found homes in distant lands like spaghetti and pasta. Where Indian ocean was the focal point of all trade routes for centuries, the discovery of Americas led to the shift of the trade to the American continents. The vast lands, abundant crops and minerals started changing trade and lives everywhere. Precious metals from Americas enhanced Europe’s wealth and financed its trade with Asia.
2. EXPLAIN HOW THE GLOBAL TRANSFER OF DISEASE IN THE PRE- MODERN WORLD HELPED IN THE COLONISATION OF THE AMERICAS. Spread of disease had been like the exchange of goods. Some of the lands where the colonists first went, had been cut off from the rest of the world for generations hence had not developed immunity to diseases like small pox. The Europeans though had superior firepower but did not conquer the Americas due to the fire power. When the Spanish conquerors reached the shores of America, it was the small pox germs that killed the whole communities deep into the continent even before the European conquerors reached there thus paving the way for conquest. 3. WRITE A NOTE TO EXPLAIN THE EFFECTS OF THE FOLLOWING: a) THE BRITISH GOVERNMENTS DECISION TO ABOLISH CORN LAWS: When the corn laws were scrapped, food could now be imported into Britain more cheaply than it could be produced within the country. British agriculture was unable to compete with the imports. Vast areas of land were left uncultivated and men and women flocked the cities or migrated overseas in search of work. As food prices fell, food consumption rose in Britian. Industrial growth had led to better incomes and ultimately growth in population. Countries like America, Australia expanded food production to meet the growing demand of Britain. b) THE COMING OF RINDERPEST TO AFRICA: The African continent was a continent covered with evergreen forests. The population was less and they had huge numbers of cattle. The common African lived a life where the cattle fulfilled most of his needs and he did not feel the need to work for wages. The Rinderpest disease entered Africa when infected cattle were imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers invading east Africa. The disease spread like wild forest fire and within a span of five years reduced the whole population of cattle in Africa to just 10%. The loss of cattle destroyed livelihoods and ultimately led to the subjugation of Africa. c) THE DEATH OF MEN OF WORKING AGE IN EUROPE BECAUSE OF WORLD WAR:
