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CHAPTER 1: THE BRONZE AGE (c. 3000-1100 BCE) & EARLY IRON AGE in Greece
c. 2800–2200: Egyptian Old Kingdom c. 2500: Helladic corridor houses on mainland, e.g., House of the Tiles at Lerna c. 2400–2300: Introduction of bronzeworking from Anatolia to western Aegean c. 1930–1750/1700: First Palace (Protopalatial) period on Minoan Crete c. 1792–1750: Law Code of Hammurabi c. 1650–1530: Volcanic eruption on Thera c. 1500: Gournia town c. 1550–1450: Second (New) Palace period on Minoan Crete c. 1550–1100: Mycenaean period of Helladic culture c. 1450–1375: Knossos reoccupied under Mycenaean control c. 1350: Pylos and other Mycenaean centers burned c. 1300: Uluburun shipwreck c. 1260–1200: Trojan War? c. 1250: Rebuilding of Cyclopean Wall at Mycenae to include Grave Circle A c. 1125: Destruction of Mycenaean centers, end of Linear B c. 1125–1050: Submycenaean c. 1000–700: Early Iron Age (“Dark Age”) c. 1050–900: Protogeometric c. 950: Lefkandi “Heroon”
Bronze Age Greece (c. 3000–1100 BC) ● When was the Bronze Age in the Mediterranean? c. 3000–1100 BC. ● Which civilizations flourished during this era? Egyptian Old Kingdom & Near Eastern cultures (Sumerians and Akkadians) ● What were key achievements of these civilizations? Written language, Mathematics, Monumental architecture (stone in Egypt, mudbrick in Near East), Trade and seafaring, Metal use, Law codes (Hammurabi, 1792–1750 BC) ● Why was Greece a “latecomer” to Bronze Age development? It developed later but benefited from rich resources (marble, islands) and trade. ● What were early Greek regional differences? In funerary customs, architecture, pottery, sculpture, and writing systems. ● Which three major Bronze Age cultures existed in Greece? Cycladic (Cycladic islands), Minoan (Crete), Helladic (mainland Greece) ● When did Minoan and Helladic cultures reach their peak? During the Middle Minoan and Late Helladic periods. ● What key technological advancement marked this period? The creation of tin bronze (copper + tin) around 2400–2300 BC. ● What were the impacts of tin bronze? Stronger tools and ploughs, Expansion of farming (especially olives), Shipbuilding innovations, Advanced construction ● What lasting contributions came from Bronze Age Greece? Marble sculpture, Stone fortifications, Painted pottery, Metalworking, Mediterranean-wide trade (gold, ivory, etc.), Early deity worship linked to Olympians, Linear B writing → early Greek
Cycladic Culture
● Where were the Cycladic islands located, and what advantages did they have? Central Aegean location, Close proximity for trade routes (east/west and north/south), Abundant marble of various colors and grains ● When did agriculture, boats, and trade appear in the Cyclades? Early Bronze Age, with settlers possibly from mainland Greece. ● What were key Cycladic sites? Chalandriani-Kastri - Syros ( coastal fortified village) & Cemetery with 600–1,000 graves ● Describe the Cycladic village architecture: Stone fortress (~70m with five towers), Stone houses (rectangular/curved), Thatched roofs ● What were Cycladic grave goods? “Frying pans” (terracotta with incised decoration, often ships or spirals), Sometimes filled with white coloring, Symbols of seafaring life ● What are “frying pans” and their possible meanings? Terracotta objects shaped like frying pans decorated with spirals, ships, and fish + Triangular base areas may represent female anatomy (vulva) or plant motifs, Found mainly in graves (likely ceremonial or symbolic) ● What material defined Cycladic art? Marble (widely available and used for sculpture) ● What are key features of Cycladic marble figures? ○ Simplified, abstract forms ○ Flat, folded arms ○ Heads tilted back ○ Separated legs with downward-pointed toes (cannot stand) ○ Painted originally (eyes, hair, adornments in primary colors) ○ Made using copper/obsidian tools and smoothed with emery
- What types of Cycladic figures existed? ○ Female figures (majority) ○ Pregnant women ○ Musicians ○ Warriors ○ Seated or abbreviated types (just head/neck or fiddle-shaped)
- Where were Cycladic sculptures found, and what might their purpose have been? ○ In graves, homes, and across islands ○ Some repaired in antiquity → valued items ○ Possibly religious or ritualistic (unknown due to no written records)
- What are key Cycladic pottery features? ○ Middle Cycladic (MC) period: painted, colorful terracotta ○ Motifs: birds, flowers, animals ○ Bold, open-space compositions ○ Exported to mainland Greece and Crete
Dating the Bronze Age ● Why is Bronze Age chronology difficult? Lack of contemporary written accounts → reliance on archaeology. ● What methods are used to date finds? Stratigraphy: studying soil layers (strata) & Typology: tracking the evolution of object types (e.g., pottery styles) ● What are “relative chronologies”? Sequences showing what is earlier/later without exact years. ● What causes major breaks between archaeological periods? Events like fires, earthquakes, or new pottery types. ● How are numerical dates established? By linking events (e.g., mentioned in Egyptian records) with Greek archaeological layers.
○ West façade with terraces or “theatral areas” ○ Labyrinth-like structure
- What was Knossos’s population? ~17,000 people (palace + town).
- What religious features existed in Minoan palaces? ○ Pillar crypts: with carved symbols (double axes, stars, tridents) ○ Lustral basins: ritual purification areas ○ Snake goddess figurines: faience figures of bare-breasted women holding snakes
- What do snake goddess figures suggest? Worship of powerful female deities connected to fertility and nature.
- What is bull imagery’s role in Minoan culture? Central to art and mythology (precursor to the Minotaur legend).
- What is the story of Minos, the Minotaur, and Theseus? ○ Minos’s wife Pasiphae birthed the Minotaur (half-man, half-bull) ○ Kept in the labyrinth at Knossos ○ Theseus killed it with Ariadne’s help (ball of thread to escape)
- What art supports the bull myth? ○ Bull-leaping frescoes: show acrobats vaulting over bulls ○ Bull’s head rhyton: ritual drinking vessel ○ “Horns of consecration”: sacred bull-horn symbols on buildings and vessels
- What was the layout of towns like Gournia (LMI)? ○ Rectilinear blocks with narrow streets ○ Small palace, theatral area, lustral basin ○ Evidence of urban planning
Akrotiri (Thera/Santorini)
- Why is Akrotiri archaeologically important? Preserved by a volcanic eruption (like Pompeii).
- When did the Thera eruption occur? c. 17th–16th century BC (likely mid-1500s).
- What was found at Akrotiri? ○ Multi-storey houses (2–3 floors) ○ Staircases, windows, fine masonry ○ Luxurious wall frescoes ○ Linear A inscriptions
- What cultural influence dominates Akrotiri? Minoan — architecture, frescoes, and art motifs.
- What do Akrotiri frescoes depict? Nature scenes — landscapes, animals, marine life.
- What is an example of Minoan Marine Style pottery? The “Pilgrim’s Flask” with octopus and marine motifs.
Helladic Culture (Mainland Greece)
Early Helladic II (EHII)
- What structures characterized early Helladic architecture? Corridor houses — large rectangular buildings with side corridors.
- What is the most famous EHII structure? The House of the Tiles at Lerna.
- What innovations appear here? ○ Terracotta and schist roof tiles (first in Mediterranean) ○ Two-storey design
○ Multiple access points
○ Clay sealings → administrative function
- What happened to the House of the Tiles? Destroyed by fire; covered with a tumulus (mound) afterward.
Late Helladic (Mycenaean)
- What does “Mycenaean” refer to? The Late Bronze Age Helladic culture centered in the Peloponnese.
- Who deciphered the Mycenaean writing system? Michael Ventris (1952) – Linear B.
- What do Linear B tablets reveal? ○ Early Greek language ○ Economy and trade records ○ Religious worship of gods like Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Dionysos
- What does the term “wanax” mean? “Leader” or “king” in Linear B.
Mycenaean Palaces: Mycenae and Pylos
- What type of masonry was used in Mycenaean fortifications? Cyclopean masonry — huge limestone boulders.
- What is the Lion Gate and its symbolism? ○ Main gate at Mycenae (with relief of two lions flanking a column) ○ Represents power, royalty, and Near Eastern influence
- What was the strategic design of the gate? Narrow passage exposing invaders’ right sides to defenders.
- What feature was added later at Mycenae? Underground cistern for emergency water.
- What is a “megaron”? Central hall with hearth, throne, and columns — precursor to later Greek temples.
- How was the palace at Pylos organized? Specialized rooms (storage, wine, oil), with thousands of Linear B tablets.
- What religious evidence is found at Mycenae? ○ Shrines with female figurines, snakes, offerings ○ Frescoes depicting goddesses, columns, wheat, and griffins ○ Influence from Minoan motifs (“horns of consecration,” snakes, female deities)
- What evidence of sacrifice exists? ○ Animal bones showing butchering and burning ○ Linear B references to offerings to Poseidon and Peleia
Burial at Mycenae
- What are Grave Circles A and B? Royal burial sites (c. 1650–1500 BC).
- What were the grave types? Shaft graves (deep, stone-lined) and cist graves (shallow).
- What were grave goods like? Extremely rich — gold masks, diadems, jewelry, weapons, imported pottery.
- What do the artifacts show? ○ Wealth and warrior culture ○ Minoan artistic influence ○ Long-distance trade
- What type of later tomb emerged? Tholos (beehive) tombs — corbel-vaulted structures.
- What is the “Treasury of Atreus”? Monumental tholos tomb at Mycenae (14.5m wide, 13.2m high).
○ Population dispersal ○ Cruder pottery (Submycenaean)
- What may have caused the collapse? ○ Invasions (Dorians or “Sea Peoples”) ○ Civil unrest ○ Economic decline ○ Natural disasters (earthquakes, drought) ○ Changing warfare
- What happened to Linear B? Disappeared around 1200 BC; Greek writing reemerged centuries later as the alphabet.
Early Iron Age (c. 1000–700 BC)
- Why was it once called the “Dark Age”? Lack of writing, decreased population, fewer luxury goods.
- What changed recent perspectives? Archaeology revealed continuous occupation, trade, and religious continuity.
- What material replaced bronze? Iron (imported from Cyprus, 11th century BC).
- What site marks the Early Iron Age revival? Lefkandi (Euboia) — large “Heroon” (hero shrine) building.
- What was found at the Heroon? ○ Apsidal mudbrick building (25m long) ○ Burials of a woman (with gold, iron, ivory) and a cremated warrior in a bronze amphora ○ Buried horses
- What does Lefkandi show? ○ Wealth and contact with the Near East ○ Early monumental architecture ○ Trade with Egypt and Phoenicia
- What was the new pottery style called? Protogeometric (1050–900 BC) ○ Wheel-thrown, precise forms ○ Abstract patterns, half-circles, black gloss finish
- What innovation reappeared around 900 BC? Figural decoration on amphorae (especially in Attica).
- What new technology transformed pottery? Three-stage firing → glossy black slip.
- What eastern influence shaped later Greek writing? The Phoenician alphabet , adapted in the Geometric period.
CHAPTER 2: THE GEOMETIC PERIOD (c. 900-700 BC) & THE 7TH CENTURY BC
c. 900–700: Geometric period c. 900: Earliest Phoenician inscription found in Greece (Knossos) c. 825: Greek emporion founded at Al Mina c. 800: Temple of Hera, Perachora c. 900–700: Geometric period c. 900: Earliest Phoenician inscription found in Greece (Knossos) c. 825: Greek emporion founded at Al Mina c. 800: Temple of Hera, Perachora
c. 800–750: First Heraion on Samos c. 776: Legendary date for the inception of the Olympic games c. 775–750: First examples of Greek writing c. 750: Homeric poems composed, Dipylon amphora c. 725: Hoplite armor appears c. 700–600: “Orientalizing” period, Daidalic style, Protocorinthian and Protoattic pottery c. 690–650: Doric temple of Poseidon, Isthmia c. 650: Law code from Dreros c. 640–630: Temple of Apollo at Thermon c. 632: Greek colony founded at Cyrene c. 600: Attic black-figure pottery begins
Early Iron Age of Greece
● Once thought to show a sudden cultural explosion , but now understood as gradual, steady growth. ● Key developments: ○ Reappearance of literacy (writing reintroduced). ○ Expansion of settlements throughout Greece. ○ Colonization and trade brought major cultural changes. ○ Adoption of Near Eastern influences (motifs, technology, ideas). ○ Increasing self-awareness and veneration of the past — beginnings of Greek cultural identity.
Colonization
● Major factor in cultural flourishing during this period ● Early colonies and trading posts: ○ Euboia founded emporion at Al Mina (modern Syria), c. 825 BC. ○ Mid-8th century: Greeks established apoikiai (“homes away from home”) in: ■ Northern Greece ■ Southern Italy ■ Sicily ○ Black Sea colonies from c. 700 BC. ○ Cyrene (Libya) founded c. 632 BC. ● Trade & exchange: ○ Eastern imports reached Greece – especially in 8th century. ○ Eastern craftsmen active on Crete. ○ Greeks adopted Near Eastern shapes and motifs for pottery and metalwork. ● Examples of Eastern–Greek interaction: ○ Bronze conical cauldron stands. ○ Cretan metalwork (Fig. 2.2). ○ Pottery from Ithaka ○ Terracottas from Tiryns ○ Late Geometric pottery from Athens (e.g. skyphos shape from Near East).
○ Head mounted on a ring stand in the sanctuary floor. ○ Worship of Dionysos attested by 500 BC – likely earlier (8th century). ○ Reuse of old sacred object shows continuity of cult and place. ● Artists’ self-awareness: ○ Artists depicted themselves at work for the first time (Fig. 2.9). ○ Votive plaques depicting pottery trade → dedicated to Poseidon and Amphitrite (signed by painters) (Fig. 2.10). ○ Suggests artistic self-consciousness and craft pride.
The Greek Sanctuary and Temple Architecture
● Sanctuary (temenos): ○ Sacred enclosure – could be delimited by line, fence, wall, stones. ○ No single written religious authority in Greek religion. ● Worship: ○ Focused on the altar, not temple building. ○ Temples mainly protected cult statues & votive gifts. ○ Altars could be simple or elaborate; animal sacrifice central. ○ Gods received smoke & bones; humans ate meat (class distinctions in cuts). ● Origins of temples: ○ To protect wooden cult images (xoana). ○ Early examples = wood and mudbrick → later stone. ○ Roofed structures developed to shelter sacred objects. ● Evolution of temples: ○ Interior colonnades, front porches, interior hearths with statue nearby. ● Temple models: ○ Terracotta models (Perachora – sanctuary of Hera Akraia) reflect apsidal temples (c. 800 BC). ○ Features: double prostyle columns, windows for light/ventilation, hipped roof. ● Euboia (Eretria) Building A (“bay hut” c. 750 BC): ○ 9.75 × 6.5 m; stone foundation, wooden columns inside/outside. ○ Porch with two prostyle columns. ○ May or may not be a temple. ● Eretria Hekatompedon (“hundred-footer”) – sanctuary of Apollo Daphnephoros (c. 725–700 BC): ○ Largest apsidal temple (35 × 7–8 m). ○ Central row of wood columns; altar with sacrificial pit opposite. ● Shift to rectangular temples (mid-8th century): ○ Hera temple at Samos (32.86 × 6.5 m) – rectangular, 3 columns in antis, stone foundation, mudbrick walls, central row of columns. ○ Orientation issues suggest older altars predate temples. ○ The site had multiple altars (950, 850, 775, 750, 720 BC → 6th century). ● Rebuilt Hera temple (670 BC): ○ Added pronaos with 4 columns, 2 in antis; open interior; bench along walls; possible peristyle (disputed). ○ Added stoa (late 7th century) – first known example – for offerings and shelter. ● Stone walls replace mudbrick (late 8th century): ○ Allowed shorter roofs, new roof styles.
○ Temple of Apollo at Dreros (Crete): stone walls, central hearth, columns flanking hearth. ○ Southwest corner = cult area with offering table, bench, cist. ○ Found bronze sphyrelata figures (2 females, 1 male – Apollo and companions) made with riveted bronze sheets (Near Eastern technique). ○ Evidence of sacrifice and dining inside (animals, bones, knives, pots). ● Temple at Iria (Naxos, 7th century): ○ Third on site; tripartite cella of stone; 4 wooden columns with bases (marble with torus molding → early Ionic feature). ○ Stone-lined hearth (eschara); continuity of ritual from earlier temples. ● Temples at Kalapodi (c. 700 BC): ○ Two rectangular temples (north 10 × 29 m, south 7.9 × 21 m) – likely Artemis and Apollo. ○ Mudbrick walls persist. ○ Altars, cult statues, ash deposits, animal bones. ○ Temple B (Artemis) – interior and porch columns, wall paintings (battle scenes). ● Emergence of standard temple plan (7th century): ○ Rectangular building + pronaos + cella + peristyle. ○ Temple of Poseidon at Isthmia (c. 690–650 BC): ■ Peristyle 7 × 18 columns (long and narrow). ■ Stone walls with engaged columns, plaster surfaces. ■ Wood superstructure, hipped roof with terracotta tiles (first known use). ■ Interior column row for support; doorways between pronaos and cella. ○ Temple of Apollo at Thermon: ■ Cella + opisthodomos (back porch). ■ Metopes (painted terracotta plaques) – myth scenes (Perseus and Medusa). ■ Corinthian clay, Corinthian style – earliest Doric features.
Architectural Orders – Doric & Ionic
● Architectural order = set of design conventions applied repeatedly. ● Developed gradually → standardized formulas.
Doric Order
● Origin: mainland Greece. ● Characteristics (by 6th century BC): ○ Fluted columns (16–20 flutes) directly on stylobate. ○ Capital = echinus + abacus. ○ Plain architrave. ○ Frieze = alternating triglyphs and metopes. ○ Cornice above frieze. ● Described as “masculine” by Vitruvius.
Ionic Order
● Developed 7th century BC (Cyclades and Asia Minor). ● Capital = volutes + echinus.
○ Cut square channels → insert iron wedges/levers → strike until block freed. ○ Remove excess marble; save for small sculptures. ● Transport: ○ Wooden sledge & beams as track. ○ Ropes and winches for slopes. ○ Loaded onto wagons → roads → ports. ○ Final shaping at destination.
Sculpting in Stone
● Crete – first large-scale stone sculpture (7th century BC) ● Temple A at Prinias (Crete): ○ Small rectangular temple (similar layout to Dreros). ○ Frieze of animals (limestone lintel). ○ Figures in Daedalic style : ■ U-shaped face, long wig-like hair (layered or braided), frontal pose, close limbs, long garment, cape. ○ Daedalic is named after the mythical sculptor Daedalos.
● Cycladic monumental sculpture: ○ Abundant marble → earliest large marble figures. ○ Thera kore (c. 640 BC) – Daedalic female, 2.3 m tall, right hand on torso. ○ Nikandre kore (Delos) – Naxian marble, Daedalic style, inscribed dedication “Nikandre from Naxos to the Far Shooter” (Apollo or Artemis). ■ Possibly image of Artemis (bow and arrow once held). ○ Colossal Apollo statue (Delos) – Naxian dedication; 9 m tall; fragments show bow and belt; metal attachments for hair. ○ Three giant kouroi in Naxian quarries – abandoned due to flaws. ○ Samian kouros (Heraion of Samos) – 4.8 m; votive offering, not deity.
● Stone types & tools: ○ Marble: Naxian, Parian, Hymettan, Pentelic, Thasian, Samian, Lakonian. ○ Tools: copper/bronze (for limestone), iron (for marble). ○ Grid system (from Egypt) used for proportions. ○ Stages: point chisels → mallet/chisel → claw chisel → tooth chisel → drill → rasps → emery. ○ Paint & gilding applied; final coating = ganosis (wax + olive oil) for lifelike surface. ○ Joints connected by bronze dowels.
○ Extensions (stucco, wood, plaster) used when marble scarce.
Funerary Art & Geometric Pottery
● Burial customs varied: ○ Adults: both cremation and inhumation. ○ Children: usually inhumation.
○ Grave goods common for males; fewer for females.
● Geometric pottery (origin: Athens) used as grave gifts or markers.
● Example: Areopagos burial (Athens): ○ Cremated pregnant woman in belly-handled amphora. ○ Grave goods: pottery, bronze, gold earrings, faience necklace, granary model → wealthy agricultural family.
● Ivory figurine (Dipylon cemetery): ○ Nude female with polos → divine Near Eastern type; meander pattern (Greek motif).
● Geometric amphorae & kraters as gravemarkers: ○ Female: amphora; Male: krater. ○ Dipylon amphora (c. 770–750 BC): ■ Horizontal animal bands (goats, deer). ■ Patterns: lozenges, meanders. ■ Scene of prothesis (laying out the dead) – mourners tear hair, corpse on bier, checkered shroud. ■ Stylized figures: triangular torsos, wasp waists. ■ Purpose: informational/narrative, not naturalistic.
● Narrative scenes: ○ Not always identifiable myth; sometimes suggest mythic stories. ○ Example: Thebes louterion – man seizing woman’s wrist to board ship (possibly Paris & Helen or Theseus & Ariadne). ○ Lack of labels makes identification uncertain.
7th Century BC Developments
Corinth
● Strategic location: isthmus between Peloponnese & mainland → major trade hub. ● Received oils/perfumes from Near East → repackaged for export. ● Development of Protocorinthian pottery : ○ Fine buff clay, small shapes. ○ Technique: black/brown slip → incised with metal tools → fired → details added (white/purple). ○ Inspired by Eastern metal and ivory objects (rivets, incisions). ○ Innovation: Protocorinthian black-figure (7th century).
● Chigi Olpe (26.2 cm high) ○ 3 friezes → hare hunt, lion hunt, hoplite battle. ○ Flute player, detailed figures, added colors. ○ Judgment of Paris depicted (labeled goddesses Athena, Hera, Aphrodite). ○ Among earliest clearly mythological narratives in Greek art.
The Early Polis (City-State)
● Polis formed through cooperation & communal identity : ○ Settled population, shared laws, festivals, public spaces, defenses, central temple. ○ Agriculture remained base of economy.
● Archaeological evidence: ○ 8th century: stone, multi-room rectangular houses replace earlier apsidal ones. ○ Courtyards = focal points; stone benches for seating/storage; central hearths common.
● Fortifications: ○ Rare but notable example = Smyrna – massive ashlar walls (phases c. 850 & 750 BC). ○ Indicates organized labor and communal planning.
● Burials: ○ Late Geometric → cemeteries placed outside city walls.
● Public spaces: ○ Agora – civic and commercial center, often near temple. ○ First planned example: Megara Hyblaia (Sicily) , founded 729 BC. ● Hoplite warfare: ○ Hoplite armor appears c. 725 BC; phalanx formation by 7th century ○ Depicted Chigi Olpe.
CHAPTER 3: THE ARCHAIC MEDITERRANEAN (c. 600–480 BC)
c. 600-480: Archaic period c. 600: Heraoin at Olympia Early 6th century: First coinage developed at Lydia c. 570-550: Ionic Artemision at Ephesos, Rhoikos temple on Samos c. 550: “Basilica” at Paestum c. 566/565: Panathenaic games reorganized c. 546: The tyrant Peisistratos gains control of Athens, Krosis of Lydia defeated c. 527: Hippias succeeds his father as tyrant of Athens c. 525: Siphnian Treasury at Delphi, Attic red-figure begins c. 520-505: Pioneer Painters c. 514: Assassination of Hipparchos, brother of Hippias, by “Tyrannicides” Harmodios and Aristogeiton c. 510: Expulsion of Hippias, Tyrannicides sculptural group by Antenor c. 508/507: Kleisthenic reforms lead to democracy in Athens c. 499/494: Ionian revolt against Persion rule c. 490-479: Persian Wars c. 490 Battle of Marathon c. Persian sack of Erethia and Athens
Culture, Society, and Economy
● Eastern Influence: Large benefit from contact with the east is most evident in the Archaic period (c. 600–480 BC). Provided the new knowledge necessary for Greeks to construct large-scale stone architecture and sculpture , transforming the landscape in the sixth century. ● Cultural Developments: Cultural richness in literature, philosophy, lyric, epic, drama (a relatively late phenomenon), and vase painting. New forms of government and polis interaction also emerged. ● Aristocratic Dominance: Aristocrats continued to hold the most power in governing Greek poleis. This aristocratic culture dominated warfare, athletics, symposia, poetry, and philosophy. Aristocratic life was defined by agonistic displays of wealth, physical prowess, courage, intelligence, and wit. Aristocrats were the usual patrons of sculpture. This held true even with the creation of democracy in late sixth-century Athens. ● Economic Exchange (Coins): A new medium of economic exchange emerged: coins. Coins evolved from earlier weight standards in Lydia (present-day Turkey) in the early sixth century BC. They were initially made of electrum (an alloy of silver and gold). Greek cities soon began minting coins in silver, using their own weight standards and standardized symbols (e.g., owls for Athens, turtles for Aigina, Pegasos for Corinth, Medusa for Neapolis in Thrace).
Archaic Temples and Architecture
Doric Order
● Heraion at Olympia (c. 600 BC): Among the earliest Doric constructions in Greece, originally built of mixed materials. It was the first major construction at Olympia.
◦ Construction: It was built on stone foundations capped by two steps (three steps became canonical c. 550 BC). A peristyle of wooden columns framed the sekos. Walls were limestone (to about
Ionic Order
● Developed in Asia Minor and on the islands. Ionic temples had an extravagant appearance, were painted, and were often of gargantuan stature in sixth-century Asia Minor (far larger than Doric temples). They were designed to inspire awe and solemn reverence. ● Artemision at Ephesos (Artemis): One of the first truly Ionic temples, exhibiting developed features, including volute capitals. It was the largest temple ever constructed when built.
◦ Patronage: Most columns were financed by King Kroisos of Lydia.
◦ Design: Stood on two steps and had a double peristyle (dipteral) , perhaps 8 × 20. Walls were limestone sheathed with marble; all columns were completely marble. Some columns had a frieze of figural relief sculpture on the shaft. The number of flutes varied between forty and forty-eight.
◦ Innovation: The dense hall of exterior columns was influenced by Egyptian hypostyle halls , but the Greek architects inverted the plan, leaving the interior open to the sky ( hypaethral ). Interaxial spacing was diminished toward the corners to create a greater space between the central columns, emphasizing the entry point.
● Rhoikos Heraion (Samos, III): A dipteral structure with a deep pronaos leading to a cella. Notably, it lacks an opisthodomos or adyton , features found in Doric structures.
Archaic Architectural Sculpture
● Decoration: Architecture was usually partly painted in primary colors. Sculpture on Doric temples appeared in metopes , pediments , and/or on the roof ( akroteria ). Materials included stone, bronze sheets, or terracotta. ● Temple of Artemis on Corcyra: One of the earliest all-stone temples in Greece. It possesses the first stone capital, earliest stone metopes (sculpted), and one of the earliest extant sculpted pediments.
◦ West Pediment: Dominated by a colossal running Medusa in the center. Medusa traditionally functioned as an apotropaic device to ward off evil, but a newer view suggests she inspired dread/fear. The artist compressed the narrative: Pegasos and Chrysaor (or Perseus) are shown standing near Medusa even though they were born after her beheading.
◦ Style: Typical archaic style emphasizing symmetry and abstract patterns. Medusa’s face is round/mask-like, framed by symmetrical corkscrew and snail curls. Flanking panthers have profile bodies but frontal heads, echoing Medusa's gaze.
◦ Mythological Connection: May reference Corcyra's mother city, Corinth (whose coinage featured Pegasos by c. 650 BC), or the shared worship of Artemis and Medusa as Potnia Theron (Mistress of Animals).
● Temple C Metope, Selinus (Sicily): Depicts Perseus beheading Medusa, with Athena standing behind him. Paint survives well on Athena’s peplos. Figures exhibit the "archaic smile," expressing animation. The sculptural style is archaic (symmetry, patterning), with a focus on frontality designed to engage the onlooker and conjure awe.
Archaic Freestanding Sculpture: Kouroi and Korai
● Purpose: Monumental sculpture (over-lifesize marble figures) was often dedicated by aristocrats and used as votive dedications in sanctuaries or as funerary markers. ● Egyptian Influence and Alterations: The earliest monumental Greek stone sculpture was influenced by Egyptian sculpture (wig-like hair, frontality, block-like form, striding pose). Greeks also borrowed the grid system for bodily proportions but altered the scale (enlarging head/legs, shortening torso). Unlike most Egyptian examples, Greek kouroi and korai are carved completely in the round. Archaic kouroi evenly divided weight between their legs. ● Style: Production began c. 640 BC and continued until c. 470 BC. They are characterized by strict frontality and a four-sidedness that reveals the original rectangular block. Early anatomy is abstract, emphasizing patterning and symmetry. Later examples show increasing naturalism (e.g., shaping stone rather than incision, eyes embedded in orbital sockets). ● Attire and Gender: Most kouroi are nude (celebrating the youthful, athletic, male form). Females ( korai ) are fully clothed (modestly dressed).
◦ Attic Korai: Earlier wore a heavy, woolen peplos (concealing the body). Later wore a light, pleated chiton (revealing the form beneath) and a himation (shawl).
◦ Samos Korai (East Aegean): Covered by differentiated garments ( chiton , himation , epiblema ), presenting a closed tapering cylinder.
● Funerary Kouros: The Anavysos kouros commemorated a warrior, Kroisos, who died in battle. It is a type meant to signify Kroisos, not a likeness. ● Funerary Kore: The Phrasikleia kore (by Aristion of Paros) served as a gravemarker. Her epitaph indicates she was a bride of Hades (as she died unwedded), explaining her elaborate garment and jewelry (wedding finery).
Panhellenic Sanctuaries and Contests
● Agonistic Culture: Athletic, dramatic, and/or musical contests were part of worship, expressing the agonistic nature of Greek culture. Panhellenic games flourished in the sixth century BC. ● Major Games: Olympia (Zeus), Pythian (Apollo at Delphi), Isthmian (Poseidon), and Nemean (Zeus). ● Crown Games: These four games were referred to as "crown games" because the only tangible prize was a vegetal crown given to the winner. ● Participation: Open to all Greeks. Most athletes were drawn from the elite class until the end of the fifth century BC. A peridionike was the "grand slam" of the crown games (winning all four in one four-year cycle). ● Delphi: Served as the center of information in the Greek world due to the powerful and influential Pythian oracle , consulted by thousands on various matters.
Attic Black-Figure Vase Painting
● Technique: Attic vase painters adopted the black-figure technique in the 7th century BC. Attic clay is orange. The black gloss comes from a slip applied to the figures. ● Early Style: Early archaic Attic black-figure relied heavily on Corinthian models: small figures, sometimes animal parades, arranged in superimposed horizontal friezes, with precise incision borrowed from Near Eastern metalworking.
