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THE BRONZE AGE (c. 3000-1100 BCE) & EARLY IRON AGE in Greece
c. 2800–2200: Egyptian Old Kingdom c. 2500: Helladic corridor houses on mainland, e.g., House of the Tiles at Lerna c. 2400–2300: Introduction of bronzeworking from Anatolia to western Aegean c. 1930–1750/1700: First Palace (Protopalatial) period on Minoan Crete c. 1792–1750: Law Code of Hammurabi c. 1650–1530: Volcanic eruption on Thera c. 1500: Gournia town c. 1550–1450: Second (New) Palace period on Minoan Crete c. 1550–1100: Mycenaean period of Helladic culture c. 1450–1375: Knossos reoccupied under Mycenaean control c. 1350: Pylos and other Mycenaean centers burned c. 1300: Uluburun shipwreck c. 1260–1200: Trojan War? c. 1250: Rebuilding of Cyclopean Wall at Mycenae to include Grave Circle A c. 1125: Destruction of Mycenaean centers, end of Linear B c. 1125–1050: Submycenaean c. 1000–700: Early Iron Age (“Dark Age”) c. 1050–900: Protogeometric c. 950: Lefkandi “Heroon”
Bronze Age Greece (c. 3000–1100 BC) ● When was the Bronze Age in the Mediterranean? c. 3000–1100 BC. ● Which civilizations flourished during this era? Egyptian Old Kingdom & Near Eastern cultures (Sumerians and Akkadians) ● What were key achievements of these civilizations? Written language, Mathematics, Monumental architecture (stone in Egypt, mudbrick in Near East), Trade and seafaring, Metal use, Law codes (Hammurabi, 1792–1750 BC) ● Why was Greece a “latecomer” to Bronze Age development? It developed later but benefited from rich resources (marble, islands) and trade. ● What were early Greek regional differences? In funerary customs, architecture, pottery, sculpture, and writing systems. ● Which three major Bronze Age cultures existed in Greece? Cycladic (Cycladic islands), Minoan (Crete), Helladic (mainland Greece) ● When did Minoan and Helladic cultures reach their peak? During the Middle Minoan and Late Helladic periods. ● What key technological advancement marked this period? The creation of tin bronze (copper + tin) around 2400–2300 BC.
● What were the impacts of tin bronze? Stronger tools and ploughs, Expansion of farming (especially olives), Shipbuilding innovations, Advanced construction ● What lasting contributions came from Bronze Age Greece? Marble sculpture, Stone fortifications, Painted pottery, Metalworking, Mediterranean-wide trade (gold, ivory, etc.), Early deity worship linked to Olympians, Linear B writing → early Greek
Cycladic Culture ● Where were the Cycladic islands located, and what advantages did they have? Central Aegean location, Close proximity for trade routes (east/west and north/south), Abundant marble of various colors and grains ● When did agriculture, boats, and trade appear in the Cyclades? Early Bronze Age, with settlers possibly from mainland Greece. ● What were key Cycladic sites? Chalandriani-Kastri - Syros ( coastal fortified village) & Cemetery with 600–1,000 graves ● Describe the Cycladic village architecture: Stone fortress (~70m with five towers), Stone houses (rectangular/curved), Thatched roofs ● What were Cycladic grave goods? “Frying pans” (terracotta with incised decoration, often ships or spirals), Sometimes filled with white coloring, Symbols of seafaring life ● What are “frying pans” and their possible meanings? Terracotta objects shaped like frying pans decorated with spirals, ships, and fish + Triangular base areas may represent female anatomy (vulva) or plant motifs, Found mainly in graves (likely ceremonial or symbolic) ● What material defined Cycladic art? Marble (widely available and used for sculpture) ● What are key features of Cycladic marble figures? ○ Simplified, abstract forms ○ Flat, folded arms ○ Heads tilted back ○ Separated legs with downward-pointed toes (cannot stand) ○ Painted originally (eyes, hair, adornments in primary colors) ○ Made using copper/obsidian tools and smoothed with emery
- What types of Cycladic figures existed? ○ Female figures (majority) ○ Pregnant women ○ Musicians ○ Warriors ○ Seated or abbreviated types (just head/neck or fiddle-shaped)
- Where were Cycladic sculptures found, and what might their purpose have been? ○ In graves, homes, and across islands ○ Some repaired in antiquity → valued items ○ Possibly religious or ritualistic (unknown due to no written records)
- What writing systems did the Minoans use? 2 undeciphered scripts — Cretan hieroglyphic and Linear A.
- What was writing mainly used for? Administrative and economic records in palaces.
- What do we know about Minoan religion? ○ Based on artifacts like figurines, seals, vessels ○ Worship in palaces, caves, and mountain sanctuaries ○ Female deities prominent
Minoan Palaces and Architecture
- Who excavated Knossos and shaped Minoan archaeology? Sir Arthur Evans (1900).
- What did Evans call the Minoan structures? “Palaces” that are now seen as administrative and religious complexes.
- What characterized Minoan palaces? ○ Domestic + administrative + storage areas ○ Central rectangular courtyards ○ Multi-storey design ○ Light shafts and drainage systems ○ Lustral basins (ritual bathing chambers) ○ Wooden columns on stone bases
- What are the two palace phases? ○ First Palace (Protopalatial): MMIB–MMIIB (c. 1930–1700 BC) ○ Second Palace (Neopalatial): After 1700 BC → richest phase
- What caused the First Palace destruction? Major fire (~1700 BC).
- What are key palace sites? Knossos, Mallia, Phaistos, Kommos, Petras, Zakro.
- What was the layout of the new palaces? ○ North–south central court ○ Surrounding rooms (storage, workshops, reception) ○ West façade with terraces or “theatral areas” ○ Labyrinth-like structure
- What was Knossos’s population? ~17,000 people (palace + town).
- What religious features existed in Minoan palaces? ○ Pillar crypts: with carved symbols (double axes, stars, tridents) ○ Lustral basins: ritual purification areas ○ Snake goddess figurines: faience figures of bare-breasted women holding snakes
- What do snake goddess figures suggest? Worship of powerful female deities connected to fertility and nature.
- What is bull imagery’s role in Minoan culture? Central to art and mythology (precursor to the Minotaur legend).
- What is the story of Minos, the Minotaur, and Theseus? ○ Minos’s wife Pasiphae birthed the Minotaur (half-man, half-bull) ○ Kept in the labyrinth at Knossos ○ Theseus killed it with Ariadne’s help (ball of thread to escape)
- What art supports the bull myth? ○ Bull-leaping frescoes: show acrobats vaulting over bulls ○ Bull’s head rhyton: ritual drinking vessel ○ “Horns of consecration”: sacred bull-horn symbols on buildings and vessels
- What was the layout of towns like Gournia (LMI)? ○ Rectilinear blocks with narrow streets ○ Small palace, theatral area, lustral basin ○ Evidence of urban planning
Akrotiri (Thera/Santorini)
- Why is Akrotiri archaeologically important? Preserved by a volcanic eruption (like Pompeii).
- When did the Thera eruption occur? c. 17th–16th century BC (likely mid-1500s).
- What was found at Akrotiri? ○ Multi-storey houses (2–3 floors) ○ Staircases, windows, fine masonry ○ Luxurious wall frescoes ○ Linear A inscriptions
- What cultural influence dominates Akrotiri? Minoan — architecture, frescoes, and art motifs.
- What do Akrotiri frescoes depict? Nature scenes — landscapes, animals, marine life.
- What is an example of Minoan Marine Style pottery? The “Pilgrim’s Flask” with octopus and marine motifs.
Helladic Culture (Mainland Greece)
Early Helladic II (EHII)
- What structures characterized early Helladic architecture? Corridor houses — large rectangular buildings with side corridors.
- What is the most famous EHII structure? The House of the Tiles at Lerna.
- What innovations appear here? ○ Terracotta and schist roof tiles (first in Mediterranean) ○ Two-storey design ○ Multiple access points
○ Clay sealings → administrative function
- What do the artifacts show? ○ Wealth and warrior culture ○ Minoan artistic influence ○ Long-distance trade
- What type of later tomb emerged? Tholos (beehive) tombs — corbel-vaulted structures.
- What is the “Treasury of Atreus”? Monumental tholos tomb at Mycenae (14.5m wide, 13.2m high).
- What features did it have? ○ Dromos (passageway) ○ Relieving triangle ○ Green/red stone columns ○ Minoan-style motifs
Minoan & Mycenaean Pottery
- How did Mycenaean pottery differ from Minoan? ○ Used mainland shapes (stirrup jars, kylikes) ○ Adopted Minoan motifs (octopus, bull-leaping, women) ○ More stylized and symmetrical
- What is the Warrior Vase? LHIIIB–C pot showing soldiers marching from a mourning woman — military themes, emotional scenes.
Mycenaean Control of Crete
- When did Mycenaeans take over Crete? After c. 1450 BC (LMIB destruction).
- What changes occurred? ○ Linear B replaced Linear A ○ New pottery styles and burials ○ Mainland-style tombs appeared ○ Knossos ruled by Mycenaeans until ~1375 BC
Uluburun Shipwreck
- When and where was it found? 1982, off southern Turkey.
- What did dendrochronology date it to? Just before 1300 BC (LHIIIA).
- What was its cargo? Copper, tin, glass, ebony, resin, gold, ivory, Mycenaean objects.
- What does it reveal? ○ Extensive trade network ○ Mycenaean sailors and goods aboard ○ Cultural exchange between Mycenae, Cyprus, Egypt, and Canaan
Writing in the Bronze Age
- What writing systems existed? ○ Minoan hieroglyphic ○ Linear A (Minoan) ○ Linear B (Mycenaean) ○ Phaistos Disk (unique Minoan artifact)
- Which script has been deciphered? Linear B — early Greek.
- What do Linear B tablets contain? Administrative data (inventories, distributions, offerings).
End of the Bronze Age
- What happened around 1350–1100 BC? Widespread destruction and decline of Mycenaean sites (Pylos, Thebes, Gla, Tiryns).
- What do stronger fortifications suggest? Increased insecurity and defensive concerns.
- What cultural changes occurred? ○ Shift to smaller graves and cremation ○ Abandonment of palaces ○ Population dispersal ○ Cruder pottery (Submycenaean)
- What may have caused the collapse? ○ Invasions (Dorians or “Sea Peoples”) ○ Civil unrest ○ Economic decline ○ Natural disasters (earthquakes, drought) ○ Changing warfare
- What happened to Linear B? Disappeared around 1200 BC; Greek writing reemerged centuries later as the alphabet.
Early Iron Age (c. 1000–700 BC)
- Why was it once called the “Dark Age”? Lack of writing, decreased population, fewer luxury goods.
- What changed recent perspectives? Archaeology revealed continuous occupation, trade, and religious continuity.
- What material replaced bronze? Iron (imported from Cyprus, 11th century BC).
- What site marks the Early Iron Age revival? Lefkandi (Euboia) — large “Heroon” (hero shrine) building.
- What was found at the Heroon? ○ Apsidal mudbrick building (25m long) ○ Burials of a woman (with gold, iron, ivory) and a cremated warrior in a bronze amphora
Early Iron Age of Greece
● Once thought to show a sudden cultural explosion , but now understood as gradual, steady growth. ● Key developments: ○ Reappearance of literacy (writing reintroduced). ○ Expansion of settlements throughout Greece. ○ Colonization and trade brought major cultural changes. ○ Adoption of Near Eastern influences (motifs, technology, ideas). ○ Increasing self-awareness and veneration of the past — beginnings of Greek cultural identity.
Colonization
● Major factor in cultural flourishing during this period ● Early colonies and trading posts: ○ Euboia founded emporion at Al Mina (modern Syria), c. 825 BC. ○ Mid-8th century: Greeks established apoikiai (“homes away from home”) in: ■ Northern Greece ■ Southern Italy ■ Sicily ○ Black Sea colonies from c. 700 BC. ○ Cyrene (Libya) founded c. 632 BC. ● Trade & exchange: ○ Eastern imports reached Greece – especially in 8th century. ○ Eastern craftsmen active on Crete. ○ Greeks adopted Near Eastern shapes and motifs for pottery and metalwork. ● Examples of Eastern–Greek interaction: ○ Bronze conical cauldron stands. ○ Cretan metalwork (Fig. 2.2). ○ Pottery from Ithaka ○ Terracottas from Tiryns ○ Late Geometric pottery from Athens (e.g. skyphos shape from Near East). ● Key regions in exchange ○ Crete, Corinth, Ithaka – located along trade routes between Levant ↔ Western Mediterranean. ○ Euboia – critical East–West contact hub ● 7th century intensification : ○ Broader contacts with Near East, North Aegean, Black Sea, Egypt (Naukratis emporion), North Africa, Western Mediterranean (France, Spain).
● Influence from East: ○ Tales of monster-slaying heroes , hybrid beasts , and animal combat motifs. ○ Techniques and aesthetics of large-scale stone sculpture and building. ○ Ivory objects, bronzeworking, metalware. ○ All adapted to Greek purposes → Greek culture absorbed & transformed these imports.
Writing and Literacy
● Greatest Near Eastern import = Phoenician alphabet. ● Adapted to write Greek language. ● Earliest Phoenician inscription in Greece: ○ Bronze bowl in tomb at Knossos , c. 900 BC. ● Phoenician–Greek contacts: ○ Kommos (southern Crete, 10th century BC). ○ Pithekoussai (Euboian colony on Ischia). ○ Al Mina , Rhodes , Methone (colony of Eretria – many early inscriptions c. 730 BC). ● Development of early Greek script: ○ c. 775–750 BC – earliest Greek writing. ○ Earliest example: Athens oinochoe inscription = “For he who dances most lightly” (in dactylic hexameter – same meter as Homeric epics). ● Homeric epics (Iliad & Odyssey): ○ Composed orally c. 750 BC; later recorded in writing. ○ Characters and myths echoed in contemporary artifacts. ● Rhodian cup (Pithekoussai grave): ○ Inscribed: “Nestor had a most drink-worthy cup… desire of Aphrodite.” ● Use of writing expanded: ○ Private inscriptions on pottery → dedications on vases, marble/bronze sculpture, weapons. ● Earliest public inscription: ○ Dreros law code (Crete) c. 650 BC – carved on stone slabs near temple of Apollo ○ Regulated term length for chief magistrate. ○ Signifies written law, public display , community identity → early polis formation
Past and Present: Defining Oneself
● Growth of ancestor cult : offerings at ancient tombs (including Bronze Age graves). ● Awareness of the past = key to Greek self-identity.
○ Central row of wood columns; altar with sacrificial pit opposite. ● Shift to rectangular temples (mid-8th century): ○ Hera temple at Samos (32.86 × 6.5 m) – rectangular, 3 columns in antis, stone foundation, mudbrick walls, central row of columns. ○ Orientation issues suggest older altars predate temples. ○ The site had multiple altars (950, 850, 775, 750, 720 BC → 6th century). ● Rebuilt Hera temple (670 BC): ○ Added pronaos with 4 columns, 2 in antis; open interior; bench along walls; possible peristyle (disputed). ○ Added stoa (late 7th century) – first known example – for offerings and shelter. ● Stone walls replace mudbrick (late 8th century): ○ Allowed shorter roofs, new roof styles. ○ Temple of Apollo at Dreros (Crete): stone walls, central hearth, columns flanking hearth. ○ Southwest corner = cult area with offering table, bench, cist. ○ Found bronze sphyrelata figures (2 females, 1 male – Apollo and companions) made with riveted bronze sheets (Near Eastern technique). ○ Evidence of sacrifice and dining inside (animals, bones, knives, pots). ● Temple at Iria (Naxos, 7th century): ○ Third on site; tripartite cella of stone; 4 wooden columns with bases (marble with torus molding → early Ionic feature). ○ Stone-lined hearth (eschara); continuity of ritual from earlier temples. ● Temples at Kalapodi (c. 700 BC): ○ Two rectangular temples (north 10 × 29 m, south 7.9 × 21 m) – likely Artemis and Apollo. ○ Mudbrick walls persist. ○ Altars, cult statues, ash deposits, animal bones. ○ Temple B (Artemis) – interior and porch columns, wall paintings (battle scenes). ● Emergence of standard temple plan (7th century): ○ Rectangular building + pronaos + cella + peristyle. ○ Temple of Poseidon at Isthmia (c. 690–650 BC): ■ Peristyle 7 × 18 columns (long and narrow). ■ Stone walls with engaged columns, plaster surfaces. ■ Wood superstructure, hipped roof with terracotta tiles (first known use). ■ Interior column row for support; doorways between pronaos and cella. ○ Temple of Apollo at Thermon: ■ Cella + opisthodomos (back porch). ■ Metopes (painted terracotta plaques) – myth scenes (Perseus and Medusa). ■ Corinthian clay, Corinthian style – earliest Doric features.
Architectural Orders – Doric & Ionic
● Architectural order = set of design conventions applied repeatedly. ● Developed gradually → standardized formulas.
Doric Order
● Origin: mainland Greece. ● Characteristics (by 6th century BC): ○ Fluted columns (16–20 flutes) directly on stylobate. ○ Capital = echinus + abacus. ○ Plain architrave. ○ Frieze = alternating triglyphs and metopes. ○ Cornice above frieze. ● Described as “masculine” by Vitruvius.
Ionic Order
● Developed 7th century BC (Cyclades and Asia Minor). ● Capital = volutes + echinus. ● Columns rest on bases (ornate). ● Taller, thinner shafts (24 flutes, flat arrises). ● Architrave = 3 horizontal bands. ● Frieze = continuous band (sculpted or painted). ● Dentil molding above frieze. ● More decorative → “feminine” in Vitruvius. ● Aeolic capital = earlier variant (late 7th century Old Smyrna). ● Ionic used first for votive columns , then architecture (Oikos of Naxians, Delos – early 6th century). ● Debate on origin – Asia Minor vs Cyclades.
Gifts to the Gods (Votive Offerings)
● “Geometric style” named after schematic figures dedicated at sanctuaries (e.g., Olympia). ● Bronze/terracotta figurines: ○ Humans, deities, horses, bulls, birds (usually domesticated) ○ Range = few cm → 36 cm. ○ Found in thousands at sanctuaries and graves. ○ Groups = nursing animals, dancers, mythic beings (e.g., earliest centaur)
○ Frieze of animals (limestone lintel). ○ Figures in Daedalic style : ■ U-shaped face, long wig-like hair (layered or braided), frontal pose, close limbs, long garment, cape. ○ Daedalic is named after the mythical sculptor Daedalos.
● Cycladic monumental sculpture: ○ Abundant marble → earliest large marble figures. ○ Thera kore (c. 640 BC) – Daedalic female, 2.3 m tall, right hand on torso. ○ Nikandre kore (Delos) – Naxian marble, Daedalic style, inscribed dedication “Nikandre from Naxos to the Far Shooter” (Apollo or Artemis). ■ Possibly image of Artemis (bow and arrow once held). ○ Colossal Apollo statue (Delos) – Naxian dedication; 9 m tall; fragments show bow and belt; metal attachments for hair. ○ Three giant kouroi in Naxian quarries – abandoned due to flaws. ○ Samian kouros (Heraion of Samos) – 4.8 m; votive offering, not deity.
● Stone types & tools: ○ Marble: Naxian, Parian, Hymettan, Pentelic, Thasian, Samian, Lakonian. ○ Tools: copper/bronze (for limestone), iron (for marble). ○ Grid system (from Egypt) used for proportions. ○ Stages: point chisels → mallet/chisel → claw chisel → tooth chisel → drill → rasps → emery. ○ Paint & gilding applied; final coating = ganosis (wax + olive oil) for lifelike surface. ○ Joints connected by bronze dowels.
○ Extensions (stucco, wood, plaster) used when marble scarce.
Funerary Art & Geometric Pottery
● Burial customs varied: ○ Adults: both cremation and inhumation. ○ Children: usually inhumation. ○ Grave goods common for males; fewer for females.
● Geometric pottery (origin: Athens) used as grave gifts or markers.
● Example: Areopagos burial (Athens):
○ Cremated pregnant woman in belly-handled amphora. ○ Grave goods: pottery, bronze, gold earrings, faience necklace, granary model → wealthy agricultural family.
● Ivory figurine (Dipylon cemetery): ○ Nude female with polos → divine Near Eastern type; meander pattern (Greek motif).
● Geometric amphorae & kraters as gravemarkers: ○ Female: amphora; Male: krater. ○ Dipylon amphora (c. 770–750 BC): ■ Horizontal animal bands (goats, deer). ■ Patterns: lozenges, meanders. ■ Scene of prothesis (laying out the dead) – mourners tear hair, corpse on bier, checkered shroud. ■ Stylized figures: triangular torsos, wasp waists. ■ Purpose: informational/narrative, not naturalistic.
● Narrative scenes: ○ Not always identifiable myth; sometimes suggest mythic stories. ○ Example: Thebes louterion – man seizing woman’s wrist to board ship (possibly Paris & Helen or Theseus & Ariadne). ○ Lack of labels makes identification uncertain.
7th Century BC Developments
Corinth
● Strategic location: isthmus between Peloponnese & mainland → major trade hub. ● Received oils/perfumes from Near East → repackaged for export. ● Development of Protocorinthian pottery : ○ Fine buff clay, small shapes. ○ Technique: black/brown slip → incised with metal tools → fired → details added (white/purple). ○ Inspired by Eastern metal and ivory objects (rivets, incisions). ○ Innovation: Protocorinthian black-figure (7th century).
● Chigi Olpe (26.2 cm high) ○ 3 friezes → hare hunt, lion hunt, hoplite battle. ○ Flute player, detailed figures, added colors.
● Mythological scenes multiplied. ● Nettos Painter Amphora (Dipylon Cemetery): ○ Neck: Herakles vs Centaur Nettos (pleading gesture). ○ Belly: Gorgons running , Medusa beheaded, dolphins below. ○ Key traits: ■ Black silhouettes with incision for detail. ■ Greek inscriptions label figures. ■ Near Eastern motifs (rosettes, hybrid monsters). ■ Action-packed, energetic compositions. ○ Transition from Protoattic to mature Attic black-figure style.
The Early Polis (City-State)
● Polis formed through cooperation & communal identity : ○ Settled population, shared laws, festivals, public spaces, defenses, central temple. ○ Agriculture remained base of economy.
● Archaeological evidence: ○ 8th century: stone, multi-room rectangular houses replace earlier apsidal ones. ○ Courtyards = focal points; stone benches for seating/storage; central hearths common.
● Fortifications: ○ Rare but notable example = Smyrna – massive ashlar walls (phases c. 850 & 750 BC). ○ Indicates organized labor and communal planning.
● Burials: ○ Late Geometric → cemeteries placed outside city walls.
● Public spaces: ○ Agora – civic and commercial center, often near temple. ○ First planned example: Megara Hyblaia (Sicily) , founded 729 BC. ● Hoplite warfare: ○ Hoplite armor appears c. 725 BC; phalanx formation by 7th century ○ Depicted on Chigi Olpe.
