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Developmental Psych Final Exam Study Guide
Review
- What is language?: -form of communication (spoken, written, signed) based on system of symbols -consists of the words used by a community and the rules for varying/combining them -highly ordered and organized
- What is infinite generativity?: the ability to produce an endless # of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules
- Phonology is the...: sound system of a language and sounds that are used and how they're combined
- Morphology (morpheme=unit) is the...: rule system that governs how words are formed in a language
- Syntax is the: system that involves the way words are combined to form accept- able phrases and sentences
- Semantics involves: the system that involves the meaning of words and sen- tences
- pragmatics is: the system of using appropriate conversation and
knowledge of how to effectively use language in context
- language in infancy: Babbling and other vocalizations: to practice making sounds, communicate, and attract attention
- Sequence of language development in infancy: crying, cooing, babbling (dur- ing first year)
- gestures in infancy: pointing (8-12 m)
- recognizing sounds in infancy: can make distinctions among sounds and recognize when they change (6 m), understand words long before they can produce them
- First words in infancy: 2 word utterances: 18-24 m, telegraphic speech (ex: see doggie)
- telegraphic language: early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs, no grammatical context
- language development in early childhood, toddlers: -toddlers: 3, 4, 5 word combinations, transition from simple sentences to more complex
- language development in early childhood, preschoolers: more sensitive to sounds of spoken words, become more capable of producing sounds, produce all vowels and most consonants
- biology of emotions: nervous system, limbic system, brain stem, early emer- gence of emotions from infancy, maturation in cerebral cortex (increases self regu- lation and lowers mood swings)
- emotions in infancy: -primary vs self conscious emotions -primary emotions: present in humans + animals, first 6 mo of human development, ex - surprise, joy, anger, sad -permits coordinated interactions w caregivers & begins emotional bond -infants modify emotions based on parents -interactions should be reciprocal or synchronous -sensitive, responsive parents help infant grow emotionally -crying: basic, anger, & pain -smiling: social skill, reflexive (during sleep, not a response), social (response to stimulus) -fear: stranger anxiety, separation
- emotional regulation & coping: -during 1st year, infant learns to inhibit/mini- mize the intensity and duration of emotional reactions -caregivers' actions influence infants neurobiological regulation of emotions, sooth- ing lowers stress hormones -infants can be distracted to reduce arousal
-toddlers can use language to define emotion states -soothing: some argue it rewards crying, others believe it builds bond
- emotions in early childhood: -2-4 yrs: increase terminology around emotion, learn abt causes and consequences of feelings -4-5 yrs: increased ability to reflect on emotions, understand that the same event can produce dif emotions for dif ppl, manage emotions to meet social standards -5 yrs: accurately determine emotions caused by challenging circumstances, de- scribe strategies to cope w everyday stress
- attachment: -infancy: internal working model of attachment, mental model of the caregiver, their relationship, and the self as deserving of nurturing care -influences responses to other ppl -link btwn attachment and subsequent emotion understanding, conscious develop- ment, & self-concept
- securely attached: babies use caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment
- insecure avoidant: babies show insecurity by avoiding the mother
- insecure resistant: babies often cling to caregiver, then resist by
-lead to drilling students and having them practice isolated facts -comes at the expense of teaching that focuses on thinking skills, which students need for life success
- child-centered kindergarten: -nurturing -emphasizes the education of the whole child and concern for their physical, cogni- tive, and socio emotional development -instruction organized around child's needs, interests, and learning styles -emphasis on the process of learning, rather than what is learned 3 principles:
- each child follows a unique developmental pattern
- young children learn best thru firsthand experiences w ppl and materials
- play is important to child's development
- Montessori approach: -Child is given freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities -some say it neglects socioemotional development and restricts imaginative play
- developmentally appropriate and inappropriate education: DAP: based
on knowledge of typical development of children w/in an age span as well as child's uniqueness (active, hands on, socioemotional development, individual develop- ment) DIP: relies on abstract paper and pencil activities presented to large groups
- project head start: -Compensatory education designed to provide children from low-income families the opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for school success -positive influence of quality early childhood programs on both the cognitive and social worlds of disadvantaged young children
- cultural differences in education: -programs and emphasis on the education of the whole child popular in western early childhood doesn't exist in many develop- ing countries -economic pressures and parents' belief that education should be academically rigorous have produced teacher centered rather than child centered curriculums in most developing countries
- elementary school: -from home child to school child, there are new roles and obligations -children develop new standards, ideas, & relationships
-foster passivity -many students graduate w low level of skills or drop out
- extracurricular activities: linked to higher grades, lower drop out rates, higher college rates, higher self esteem, etc.
- differences in school achievement causes: -dif approaches to education and teaching -changes at school during development -drop out rates -SES and ethnicity -learning difficulties -motivation
- SES and Ethnicity in Schools: barriers include: -parents don't set high educational standards -parents are incapable of reading to them -parents can't afford educational materials such as field trips, books, supplies -malnourishment -might live in areas of high crime -schools are better & higher funded in higher income areas
- learning disabilities: -disorders found in children of normal intelligence who have difficulties in learning specific skills such as processing language or grasping mathematical concepts -dyslexia (reading & spelling), dysgraphia (handwriting), dyscalculia (math)
- extrinsic motivation: involves external incentives such as rewards and punish- ments
- intrinsic motivation: -a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake -cognitive approaches stress the importance of intrinsic motivation -self determination
- sustained attention: -the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time -requires effort and becomes more important as work, school, tasks get more difficult
- mastery motivation: task oriented; concentrate on learning strategies and process of achievement rather than the outcome
- helpless orientation: seem trapped by the experience of difficulty, and they attribute their difficulty to lack of ability
-influenced by parents, teachers, coaches mindset
- self-efficacy: the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes -eagerly work at learning tasks -expend more effort and persist longer -confidence influenced by parents' self-efficacy
- expectations: children's motivation and performance are influenced by expec- tations of parents and teachers
- goal setting, planning, and self monitoring: -self efficacy and achievement improve when ppl set goals that are specific, proximal, and challenging -self regulatory: forethought, performance, self reflection -delaying gratification
- purpose: an intention to accomplish something meaningful to oneself and con- tribute something to the world beyond the self
- cross-cultural comparisons in schools: america did poor, asian countries score highest: -more time in school
-more time teaching math -more days in school per yr -higher expectations for kids -american parents believe in innate ability rather than effort -more involvement in education
- cognition & emotion in family process: -parents' cognition -beliefs -values abt their parental role -how parents perceive, organize, understand their children's behaviors & beliefs -children's social competence is linked to parents' emotional lives & sensitivity -children learn emotional expression thru parents'
- emotion-coaching parents: monitor their children's emotions, view child's neg- ative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in in labeling emotions, coach them in how to effectively deal w emotions
- emotion-dismissing parents: view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions
- parenting: -interpersonal skills and intense emotional demands
school
- parenting in middle & late childhood: -parents spend less time w kids -supporting and stimulating academic achievement -value on education affects child's performance -influence extracurricular activities -less physical discipline -control transferred from parent to child: gradual, produces co regulation -general supervision & control, but child engages in moment to moment self regu- lation -major shift to autonomy: age 12+
- Parents as Managers of Children's Lives: -parents manage children's oppor- tunities, monitor their lives, social initiators and arrangers -parent must be effective manager: finds info, makes contacts, structures choices, provides guidance -being proactive and child proofing environment so infants are safe -using corrective methods when infants engage in undesirable behaviors -increased corrective feedback and discipline for toddlers -concern that too much discipline could be abusive
- parental monitoring in childhood & adolescence: -supervising adolescent's choices of social settings, activities, and friends -adolescents' management of their parents' access to info (how much they lie about their activities) -more disclosure to parents is linked to positive adolescent achievement and adjust- ment -family management practices are related positively to students' grades and self-re- sponsibility, and negatively to school-related probs -maintaining structured family environment, such dinner together, homework, bed- time routines, etc
- authoritarian parenting: -restrictive, punitive style where parents exhort the child to follow their directions and respect their work and effort -firm limits and control, little verbal exchange -children are often unhappy, fearful, anxious, weak communicators
- authoritative parenting: -encourages children to be independent but still places limits & controls on their actions -extensive verbal give & take allowed, parents are warm and nurturing -parents show pleasure & support in response to children's constructive
-presents out of control models for handling stress -children imitate behavior -tells children what not to do rather than what to do -can instill rage, fear, avoidance -can be abusive -better to reason w child, time out
- autonomy & attachment: -teenagers want to be w peers rather than parents & show that their successes are their own -aquired thru appropriate adult reactions to their desire for control -adolescents gradually learn to make mature decisions on their own -boys are often given more independence -secure attachment involves positive peer relations and development of the adoles- cent's emotion regulation capacities
- working parents: -more mothers in the labor force -many moms spend the greatest part of their day away from kids -development is affected more strongly by the nature of parents' work than by the employment of parents outside the home
- children of divorce: -divorce rate increased in the 60s&70s but declined since the 80s
-divorce rate higher in the US than other countries -40% of children will experience their parents' divorce -many factors involved
- self-understanding: -self: all characteristics of a person -central aspect of the individual's personality -lends an integrative dimension to our understanding of different personality char- acteristics -young children are psychologically aware of themselves & others -identity emerges before 2 yrs
- developmental changes: infancy: -difficult to study bc infants can't tell us how they experience themselves, verbally express their views of the self, or understand complex instructions from researchers -self recognition as early as 3 mo -ability to recognize their physical features and develop a conscious awareness of their own body at 2 yrs -toddlers show self awareness at 2-3 yrs -beginning of children's representation of their own 3D body shape & appearance
- developmental changes: early childhood: -confusion of self, mind, &
