Guide to Persuasive Discursive Writing for National 5 and Higher English Students, Lecture notes of History

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Discursive

Writing

A guide for National 5 and

Higher English students

Discursive Writing

* explores a controversial issue in depth

* uses research and supporting evidence

* is carefully structured

CHOOSE PERSUASIVE!

* Allows you to show off more writing skills than

argumentative writing.

* More interesting to read (and write)

* More common in the real world, so lots more examples to

learn from: newspaper editorials, opinion pieces, speeches…

Argumentative

*writer remains neutral and

detached from the topic

(objective)

*all sides of the argument are

treated equally (unbiased)

*points are listed sequentially

with he most important

points first

*uses information to inform

the reader of all the relevant

issues.

Persuasive

* writer’s personality and

opinions are evident

(subjective)

* all sides of the argument are

looked at, but one side is

favoured more than others

(biased)

* points are structured

logically to build up a line of

argument

* uses information and

persuasive language to

persuade the reader of the

writer’s opinion

Choosing a topic

It must be: Controversial and open to debate Topical and worth writing about now Interesting to you and the reader Original and not an overdone topic Allows you to research and develop deep knowledge and genuine insight 3

Overdone Topics

Social media

Technology’s negative impact on

society

Size zero models

Footballer’s wages

Gun laws in America

Goal-line technology

Animal testing/cruelty

Abortion

Euthanasia

Capital punishment

Cosmetic surgery

Reality TV/talent shows

Illegal downloading

Legalising cannabis

School uniform

Scottish independence

Original Topics

Ex-rated: the BBFC is an

anachronism

The apostrophe’s had its day

Up the Amazon: why the world’s

largest retail doesn’t deserve its

bad rep

Lose the loose change: it’s time to

scrap the penny

Poor Odds: the lottery is state-

sanctioned exploitation of the

poor

Don’t save the panda

Overdue: libraries must evolve to

survive

Time of tragedy: the ‘minute’s

silence’ is being over-used and

undermined.

“But I can’t think of

anything…”

Your teacher can help you decide on a

suitable topic, but they can’t come up

with it for you!

Do some groundwork…

* Read a newspaper - especially the

editorial, debate and opinion pieces, regular columnists and

the letters page.

* Look at reference books and topic guides in the library.

* Visit debating websites (beware of overdone topics though)

* Watch Tv: the news, Question Time, Newsnight,

documentaries…

* Watch some TEd talks on YouTube

* Talk to teachers in other subjects. Ask them what debates,

issues and controversies are currently topical in their

subject area

Keep your eyes peeled for ideas wherever you go!

Preparing to Write - Plan

Before writing, you need:

* a stance

* points that support your stance

* counter arguments to knock down

* supporting evidence

* a structure for your argument

Stance

“What are you actually trying to persuade the reader of?” This is the feedback most frequently written on first drafts. Don’t make the same mistake! Have a clear stance before you write. A stance is the overall position that you will take/argue in the piece. Make your stance a statement, not a question.

Depending on your topic, you stance might also become your essay’s

title.

Points

The second most common feedback given to students is: “your line of argument is weak”. This usually means the points have not been planned out. Points are the arguments or opinions you will put forward to support your stance. They should be written as brief statements when planning (not questions) Your points should flow logically, linking together, each building on the last, to lead towards your conclusion.

Counter Arguments

Counter-arguments are the arguments that your opponents would make. When planning your points, imagine a little demon on your shoulder saying: “Ah, but…” or “hang on, what about…” If you can see there’s an obvious counter-argument, so will your reader. You must acknowledge the arguments to show you’ve thought about the issue form all sides. However, you should knock down and undermine the counter-arguments that you acknowledge Be selective: don’t include all possible counter-arguments just the most obvious and important ones. Remember, you points should outweigh the counter-arguments.

EXAMPLE STANCE: We should scrap the 1p coin. 6

EXAMPLE POINTS

1. We are an increasingly cash-less society: debit cards, e-banking,

etc.

2. When we do pay with cash, we rarely have the chance to use

coppers - inflation means even penny sweets don’t cost 1p any more!

3. So coppers build up in piggy banks and pockets and are never

spent - so many coins out of circulation is pointless

4. Not only pointless, but also an expensive waste: costs the Royal

Mint millions to produce them every year

5. Other countries have got rid of pennies, and it has worked well -

we should follow in their footsteps. Eventually the 5p will replace the

job of the 1p and 2p anyway!

EXAMPLE COUNTER-ARGUMENTS

1. Scrapping the penny would require a massive change in how

shops and cashiers worked - prices would have to be rounded up or

down to the nearest 5p

2. Pennies don’t really cost a lot to make - they are made of low-

value metals

3. Pennies have nostalgic and sentimental value -they are woven

into the fabric of our language and society (“spend a penny” / “penny

for your thoughts”)

4. Lots of charities benefit from people donating their small change -

they might lose out

5. If we’re becoming a cash-less society then why don’t we just wait

until all coins are scrapped?

Supporting Evidence

This is information that backs up or emphasise your points. You should use a variety of types of evidence. Don’t include any evidence supporting counter- arguments, only your points.

Referencing your sources

The web links for the websites where you find your evidence should be written down in your bibliography. You should keep a note of these during the planning process as it will save you a lot of time an effort later on. You should also write down the date you accessed the information. Bibliography Author of website, Name of website, URL, [Accessed: give date] Footnotes Footnotes are used to help the reader work out where particular pieces of evidence came from.

On a PC (Word) On a Mac (Pages)

1. Put the cursor after the piece of evidence in the piece.
2. Click the ‘Insert’ tab at the top of the page.
3. Click on ‘Insert footnote’ - NOT ‘Insert endnote’
4. Paste the URL of the webpage you got that bit of evidence from.
5. Put the cursor after the piece of evidence in the piece.
6. Click the ‘Insert’ menu at the top of the screen.
7. Scroll down and select the ‘Footnote’ option.
8. Paste the URL of the webpage you got that bit of evidence from. Types of evidence include:

• Facts
• Statistics
• Anecdotes, case studies, examples, illustrations
• Quotations from respected authority figures or experts. Plagiarism is a danger when using sources. To protect yourself, never copy and paste directly from sources. Summarise and write notes in your own words - then you never have to worry.

Create a skeleton plan

1) Write your stance as a heading.

2) Write your points (in simple statements) as subheadings

3) Underneath each point, bullet point your supporting

evidence

This will be the bones of your essay.

Once you have your skeleton plan, you’re 70% of the way

there: all you need to do is flesh it out with persuasive

language and rhetorical devices!

Plan Structure

Start with the broadest, most obvious/significant points

first. You can then ‘refine’ your argument by getting into the

smaller details and less obvious points later on.

Put counter-arguments near the start of a paragraph or

section, never at the end. Make sure any counter-arguments

you mention are clearly knocked down or undermined.

Use linking sentences to link back to your previous point, and

then lead into your next point. This is a good way of checking

that your points flow in a logical order, building a strong ‘line

of argument’.

Spending a few hours creating a very solid skeleton plan will save

you a massive amount of time redrafting later. Don’t think of it as

a plan as all; it’s really your first draft.

The Planning Process

Generate ideas

* Find out what’s in the news.

* Read lots of persuasive writing

* Create a list of possible topics/arguments

* Get teacher’s advice on the best choice

Write stance

* Decide your angle/stance

* Write this as a statement, not a question

* Get your teacher to approve your final choice

Brainstorm initial points

* Without doing any research, brainstorm the

main points you can think of (and counter-

arguments)

* Discuss with friends, family, teachers to

generate more ideas

Research supporting evidence

* Look for evidence to support your points

* You may discover new points as you research -

add to your list

* Don’t copy and paste - type or wrote info by

hand

* Keep a note of all sources for your bibliography

Write a skeleton plan

* Put points in a logical sequence

* Write linking sentences to join ideas up

* Gather together evidence for each point

* Work out where you will include some counter

arguments

Writing a draft

Introduction The introduction should hook the reader’s interest and be stylish. *Start with humour *Start with a fact/story designed to shock/anger *Start with an illustrative anecdote/story which introduces your essay’s theme, but which is not directly related to your specific topic. *Start with a quotation/expert opinion It should also introduce the topic and make clear why the reader should care about it. *Show the issue is topical/contemporary/of the moment *Show it affects everyone/‘us all’/the reader *Show that the issue has been ignored/or is going unnoticed/under-the- radar/deserves attention *Show that the issue is of wider historical importance/has a long history/wide-ranging consequences *Show it is of intense personal significance to you Finally, it should outline your stance. *Show your stance through tone, word choice and ideas. Avoid explicitly stating “I am going to argue…” or “I believe that…” The reader should be able to work your stance out themselves without being told. 10

What to avoid

*Don’t use a rhetorical question to introduce your topic. *Don’t go into specific details about particular points or evidence - keep it broad. *Don’t be wishy-washy by saying things like :”This is a topic about which there are many different opinions on both sides.” *Avoid the first person unless you are deliberately using a personal anecdote or conversational tone. *Don’t talk about your own essay (“In this essay I’m going to…”)

Word Choice

By choosing particular

words, you can portray your

subject in a negative or

positive light.

This shows your opinion/

stance without having to tell

the reader explicitly.

Use connotations and loaded

language to show your stance.

Emotive Language:

Words designed to convey

emotion to the reader, or create

emotion in the reader, through

their strong connotations.

Examples:

fleeing, destroyed, defenceless

vile, cheats, frail, thug, yob,

victim, tragic, sick, cruel, barbaric, savage, lonely, vulnerable,

beast, immoral, struggle, hate crime, ravaged, stranglehold ...

historic, monumental, inspirational, liberated, innocent, adored, sanctuary, idyllic, homely, cosy, joyous... Words are your tools. Choose the right tools for the job. government regime economic savings spending cuts changing manipulating freedom fighter terrorist injure maim / disfigure killed slaughtered detained banged up economic downturn crash / recession focused crash blinkered/bloody- minded remove abolish / destroy

Sentence Structures

Sentence structure should be varied to create interest and

flow.

Sentence structures should also be used for emphasis.

Sentence structures can also be used for balance or to show

contrast.

Simple sentences and minor sentences “It is barbaric. It must be stopped. Now.” “A face so handsome. A voice so smooth. Ah, my hero!” “Yeah. Ok. Whatever you say.” Compound sentences using conjunctions “I have faith in our nation because history has shown that good usually triumphs over evil in these situations.” “The evidence was unclear yet the decision went ahead.” “The consequences will affect not just you and me and our children and our grandchildren, but the rest of mankind.” Short sentence after a long one “My daughter – despite owning many dolls and books about ballerinas, many shiny and sparkly garments and other glittery, stereotypically girlish fare – would much rather build a skyscraper out of Legos or read about how to expand her game play on the coding app Hopscotch. And I, for one, couldn’t be happier about it.” Single sentence paragraph Sentential adverbs (a single word or phrase that interrupts the sentence for emphasis) “But the weapons did not, in fact, exist. The evidence was, without doubt, a fabrication. In short, we were tricked.”

“Trust in bankers plummeted in 2010 and remains in freefall; in the

last two years their bonuses in the City have continued to rocket

upwards.”

Rhetorical Devices

Rhetorical devices should be used to

stylistically hold together your

persuasive argument.

Imagery Use of similes, metaphors, personification. “If we are all soldiers in the war against drugs, we can force the army of drug pushers into retreat.” Parenthesis Interrupting a sentence to insert a further explanation or aside in dashes or brackets. Triple Statements sound more powerful when put in threes. “An increase in the numbers of policemen will lead to safer streets, safer cities and a safer society.” Repetition These questions focus the reader to think about where they stand and hopefully agree with the point you’re making. Use them sparingly and at a place were it is likely they will agree. “Surely displaying respect to all faiths in ‘The Land of the Free’ is the perfect retort to the intolerance, violence and limited world view of the jihadists?” Hyperbole/Exaggeration Overstating can be effective in creating humour while illustrating flaws in the opposing argument. “While having a fleet of new and shiny massive aircraft carriers to sail around the world’s island or coastal hotspots is all well and good, we cannot have this at the expense of soldiers in Afghanistan making do with old tin trays in their Land Rovers as protection against road side bombs.”

Persuasive Numbers

How you present numbers, figures and statistics can

greatly influence the reader’s perception of them.

* Choose which numbers to use carefully

* Present statistics and numbers in ways that help to

strengthen your argument.

* Use language to emphasise your stance.

“only... a minority... almost everyone... a significant minority/

majority... as many as... less than... more than... a mere...a

whopping...X out of Y people…"

Consider these phrases which all mean the same: The same fact can be presented from the opposite side: “20% of people think X” “80% of people think Y” “A fifth of the population think X.” “Four out of five people think Y.” “One in five people think X.” “Only two in ten people think X.” “An overwhelming majority of people believe Y.” “Less than a quarter of the population think X.” “Four times as many people think Y compared to X.”

Conclusion

The conclusion is the climax of your whole argument. It’s where all of your points have been leading. You should: *draw your points together into a final overview of the situation/issue *step back from the individual details and place the whole issue back in its wider context *consider the future: what will happen? Where are we headed? What should happen? The conclusion is also the culmination of careful consideration and logical thought. *Essays that start and end with exactly the same ideas come across as simplistic, basic, limited. *A good conclusion shows that your exploration of the issue has led to a more refined stance. *A good way to show this is to create a^ circular structure -^ return to an idea/image/detail from the start of your essay and show it in a different light. Finally, the conclusion is the last thing the marker will see - it should be memorable.

• End it with a ‘call to action’, warning or ultimatum.
• End on a powerful image or analogy.
• Address the reader directly. *End with a catchy phrase, quotation or pun.

What to avoid

Don’t just repeat the points you made in your essay. Zoom out and draw

them together into a broader overview.

Don’t introduce new ideas or points.

Don’t be vague: “Only time will tell…we’ll have to see…”

Don’t end on a question.

Don’t talk about your own essay (“As I have shown in this essay…”)

Redrafting

When asked to redraft your piece, you should do a lot more than just correct spellings and only fix what the teacher has marked; you should reflect on feedback, act on suggestions, experiment, rewrite, develop, extend , improve, refine… Don’t expect to redraft in one sitting. Redraft a little bit, leave it a few days, redraft some more, leave it a few days, redraft some more… The more often you look at your essay ‘with fresh eyes’, the better. Read your piece out to an audience is you can. If they can’t follow your argument, you may need to improve your clarity, linking sentences or line of argument.

Final Checklist

1. Check your piece is within the word limits. (Nat 5: 800-1000 OR Higher: 1000-1300)
2. Include the word count at the end.
3. Include a bibliography at the end and footnotes throughout.
4. Check your piece has an appropriate title (size 14/16, bold, underlined, centred)
5. Put your name at the top of the front page, under title.
6. Paragraphed and left-hand aligned
7. 12 point size
8. Appropriate font used = Calibri, Times New Roman, Arial, Helvetica
9. 1.5 or double spaced (whole essay)
10. Printed in black ink.
11. Spellchecker used and proofread on paper several times