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______ of the exonerations for rapes and robberies involved mistaken eyewitness identifications. - ANSWER-80% -Psychologists have been able to implant false memories by - ANSWER-▪enlisting the help of family members who suggest to adult research participants that these relatives recall a fabricated event. ▪asking participants to imagine events that never occurred. ▪doctoring family photographs. -Why does the other-race effect occur? - ANSWER-▪Physiognomic variability In-group/out-group differences: ; State vs. Henderson, 2011 - ANSWER--when a defendant presents evidence that a witness's identification may be unreliable, the judge must hold a hearing to consider the issues and must give detailed instructions to the jury about the pitfalls of eyewitness evidence. "Clever Hans" phenomenon - ANSWER-Showed expectancy cues phenomenon, asking a question, wanting a certain answer (do you want to go home..tone changes) "standard" police interview - ANSWER-one relies on a predetermined set of questions with little opportunity for follow-up. (Coy v. Iowa, 1988). - ANSWER-The Supreme Court later ruled that the defendant's right to confront his accusers was not outweighed "by the necessity of protecting the victims of sexual abuse" •Approximately _____defendants are implicated by eyewitnesses in the U.S. every year, but unfortunately, some eyewitnesses make mistakes. - ANSWER- •How do jurors perceive child witnesses? - ANSWER--In mock jury studies, child eyewitnesses are generally viewed as less credible than adult eyewitnesses. -But in CSA cases, younger victims are viewed as morecredible than adolescents or adults, probably because jurors suspect that younger children lack the sexual knowledge to fabricate an allegation. -Note that jurors can recognize the effects of suggestive questioning. •Only ____ states have laws that compensate the wrongly imprisoned. - ANSWER- •Race of the Eyewitness - ANSWER--Eyewitnesses are usually better at recognizing and identifying members of their own race or ethnic group than members of another race or ethnic group (termed the other-race effect).
•Why are there more mistaken IDs in a simultaneous lineup? - ANSWER--In a simultaneous lineup presentation, eyewitnesses tend to identify the person who looks most like the culprit relativeto other members of the group (i.e., a relative judgment). As long as the perpetrator is in the lineup, the relative-judgment process works well. 3 reasons why jurors overemphasize eyewitnesses accuracy? - ANSWER-1. Jurors have a baseline expectation that eyewitnesses are accurate.2. Jurors assume that eyewitnesses' testimonies are a reflection of their memory quality, and not the way they were questioned or interacted with the lineup administrator (i.e., fundamental attribution error).3. Jurors over-rely on an eyewitness's confidence when gauging accuracy A souvenir - ANSWER-is a meaningful item taken by the offender to remember the incident. absolute judgment). - ANSWER-In a sequential lineup, the eyewitness compares each member in turn to his or her memory of the perpetrator and, on that basis, decides whether any person in the lineup is the individual who committed the crime ACE study - ANSWER--involved the study of people who experience: ▪recurrent physical and emotional abuse ▪contact sexual abuse ▪an alcohol and/or drug abuser in the household ▪an incarcerated household member ▪a household member who is chronically depressed, mentally ill, institutionalized, or suicidal ▪a mother who is treated violently ▪one or no parents ▪emotional or physical neglect Age of eyewitness - ANSWER--Older eyewitnesses and young children make more errors than younger and middle-aged adults (e.g., they are more likely to choose someone from a lineup in which the culprit is absent). Blaming the victim - ANSWER-The tendency to blame individuals (make dispositional attributions) for their victimization, typically motivated by a desire to see the world as a fair place,
welfare
crime was preventable
battered spouse syndrome
-•Merely imagining or viewing a photo associated with a fabricated event can dramatically increase the rate of false memories, even when the event is completely implausible. Crime scene - ANSWER-The process of identifying behavioral patterns, motivations, and demographic variables of an UNKNOWN offender based on the evidence gathered at the crime scene crimes are increasing - ANSWER-identify theft
cyberbullying
cyberstalking Daubert Standard - ANSWER-states that a witness who is qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education may testify in the form of an opinion or otherwise if: (a) the expert's scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will help the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue; (b) the testimony is based on sufficient facts or data; (c) the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods; and (d) the expert has reliably applied the principles and methods to the facts of the case. Describe the disclosure of child maltreatment. What happens when asked directly what does research show? - ANSWER--Children are sometimes reluctant to disclose abusive experiences and may even deny them when asked.-Research does suggest that many children can remember significant details of abuse experiences and, if asked directly, can describe them quite accurately Disorganized crime scene - ANSWER-A crime scene that demonstrates that the offender committed the crime without premeditation or planning. In other words, the crime scene suggests the offender acted on impulse or in a rage. dispositional vs. situational attributions - ANSWER--dispositional: assumes that the cause of a behavior or outcome is internal -situational: assigns the cause of a behavior or outcome to the environment or external conditions-people are likely to make dissociation - ANSWER-in which victims of abuse or other traumas are thought to escape the full impact of an experience by psychologically detaching themselves from it (i.e., dissociative identity disorder).
Double Blind Testing procedures - ANSWER- Effect of post-event information on memory of event - ANSWER--can alter memories of an event (e.g., talking to other witnesses). --Post-event information that conforms to one's beliefs is more likely to be integrated into memory. Effect of viewing photographs on eyewitness identification - ANSWER--viewing photographs of suspects after witnessing a crime can impair an eyewitness's ability to recognize the perpetrator's face in a lineup. Effect on memory as retention interval increases - ANSWER-memory fades encoding - ANSWER--Stimuli that are only briefly seen or heard cannot be encoded fully. The complexity of a stimulus also affects its encoding. --Witness characteristics can affect encoding. ▪For example, the effects of stress are felt more acutely by those higher in anxiety and neuroticism. -We all differ in visual acuity and hearing ability. -Different expectancies about events can influence how they are encoded; we generally have a tendency to see what we expect to see. encoding during stress - ANSWER--Extreme stress usually causes the person to encode information incompletely or inaccurately. Estimator variable: - ANSWER-Factors beyond the control of the justice system and whose impact on the reliability of the eyewitness can only be estimated (e.g., the lighting conditions at the time of the crime) Experimenter bias - ANSWER-A lineup administrator's knowledge of the suspect's identity can increase the likelihood that an eyewitness will choose someone (more likely when the administrator has failed to provide instructions that the suspect may not be in the lineup) Expert testimony - ANSWER-Can help the jury with scientific frame of reference to evaluate eyewitness evidence Exposure to trauma is rare. - ANSWER-fakse eyewitness testimony - ANSWER-one of the most compelling reasons why jurors believe such identifications are accurate. Federal court cases and more than half of the states use - ANSWER-Daubert Five types of profiling - ANSWER-•
Interviewing Eyewitnesses: two way - ANSWER-standard and cognitive Jurors put a great deal of weight on? - ANSWER-eyewitness testimony Jury instructions - ANSWER-alerted to the limitations of eyewitnesses; the judge decides whether to grant the request. lineup instructions - ANSWER-- -•An investigator should instruct the witness that the offender mayor may notbe present. Lineup Presentation Method types - ANSWER-•simultaneous presentation -sequential presentation). Linkage analysis - ANSWER-inking one crime to another on the basis of clues Loftus (1974), gave subjects a description of an armed robbery resulting in two deaths. ___ conviction vs. ___conviction (!) when eyewitness present - ANSWER-18%; 74% Maryland v. Craig - ANSWER-a law permitting a child to give testimony in a different part of the courthouse and have the testimony transmitted to the courtroom via close- circuit Modus operandi - ANSWER-the actions and methods an offender uses to commit a crime NYPD - no longer can "stop and frisk" on the basis of race, national origin, or ethnicity alone - ANSWER-true, However, these CAN be considered if in combination with other factors online shaming - ANSWER-a form of Internet vigilantism in which targets are publicly humiliated using technology like social and new media Organized crime scene - ANSWER-a crime scene that indicates planning and premedication on the part of the offender. The scene shows that the offender maintained control over his emotions as well as the victim. perception - ANSWER-the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses. - •Certain variables can affect how well we take in information. Perception of victims - ANSWER-Need to believe in a "just world" Personation - ANSWER-any behavior that goes beyond what is
necessary to successfully commit a crime Physiognomic variability - ANSWER-perceived differences based on physical features (a cognitive interpretation) Postdictionvariable - ANSWER-Does not directly affect the reliability of an identification, but it is a measurement of some process that correlates with reliability (Wells et al.,
- (e.g., the confidence that a witness feels for an identification). Procedural Modifications When Children Are Witnesses - ANSWER-placement of a screen in front of the defendant has been used so the child witness cannot see him or her while testifying. -Maryland v. Craig -(Coy v. Iowa, 1988). -provide an advocate who can familiarize the child with the courtroom setting -permit a support person to sit with the child during testimony -make structural changes to the courtroom Psychological - ANSWER-The process of identifying and predicting the level of dangerousness of known OR unknown individuals. The process usually involves two slightly different assessment procedures: threat assessment and risk assessment. Reforming identification procedures - ANSWER-new set of rules for cases involving eyewitness identifications. The decision lists more than a dozen factors that judges should consider in evaluating the reliability of an eyewitness's identification (e.g., presence of a weapon). Reminiscence effect - ANSWER-can explain why multiple interviews might be useful.Often report new info recalled when viewed a picture again repeated interviews - ANSWER-Enhance memory for aspects of the incident that are held constant but impair the ability to recall details that vary repeated interviews - ANSWER-If they experience multiple incidents of maltreatment, children may be subjected to repressed memories - ANSWER-sometimes stay forgotten unless and until they are spontaneously recalled by exposure to some aspect of the original experience -are recovered only after a person participates in psychotherapy repression; - ANSWER-Emotionally motivated forgetting is called retrieval - ANSWER-the process of getting information out of memory storage
systematic collection of behavioral, personality, cognitive, and demographic data gathered on previous offenders who have committed similar crimes. It may result in researchers referring to, for example, a rapist profile, a batterer profile, or an arsonist profile. Suspect-based profiling problem - ANSWER-May result in racial profiling
ex NYPD - no longer can "stop and frisk" on the basis of race, national origin, or ethnicity alone
However, these CAN be considered if in combination with other factors Racial profiling is the act of suspecting or targeting a person of a certain race on the basis of observed or assumed characteristics or behavior of a racial or ethnic group, rather than on individual suspicion System variable: - ANSWER--Factors under the control of the criminal justice system (e.g., instructions given to eyewitnesses viewing a lineup) the ace study has two major findings - ANSWER--Adverse childhood experiences are much more common than anticipated or recognized -Adverse childhood experiences have a strong relationship with social and health outcomes later in life the Copeland stud - ANSWER- the csi effect - ANSWER-belief held primarily among law enforcement personnel and prosecutors that forensic science television dramas influence American jurors to want more forensic evidence to convict defendants of crimes. The overall rate of violent victimization has decreased substantially between 1993 and 2015, from a rate of over - ANSWER-75 per 1,000 to under 25 per 1,000 citizens. the weapon focus effect appears to be caused by ________which means - ANSWER- selective attention, we have limited attentional capacity The wording of questions - ANSWER-can influence retrieval. ▪For example, asking "What was the man with the mustache doing with the young boy?" may influence memory of the man.
Threat assessment : - ANSWER-a process to determine the credibility and seriousness of an expressed threat being carried out. The person may be known or unknown. three stages of memory - ANSWER--Encoding -Storage -Retrieval Tradeoff with sequential - ANSWER-fewer identification effects, both mistaken and accurate identifications are reduced Trophy - - ANSWER-an item taken from the crime scene or from the victim that symbolizes the offender's triump over the victim Unconscious transference: - ANSWER-Victims may pick from a lineup someone they have seen before but who is not the actual criminal. Undoing - ANSWER-a behavioral pattern evident at the crime scene in which the offender tried to psychologically "undo" the crime. Variables that affect eyewitness accuracy - ANSWER-Postdictionvariable, Estimator variable:, System variable: Weapon focus effect: - ANSWER--If a weapon is present when a crime is committed, we may devote more attention to it than to the facial features or other physical aspects of the person with the weapon
- The presence of a weapon can also affect the processing of auditory information. Wells' removal without replacement study - ANSWER-showed 200 eyewitnesses to staged crime either culprit-present lineup or lineup culprit absent but not replaced... 32% only said "not there" in culprit present group What percentage of people were exposed to a trauma by age 16? - ANSWER-C. 60% What was generally found with children as witnesses? What was the surprising founding? - ANSWER--Children are generally less accurate than adults when making an identification from a lineup in which the suspect is absent (they pick someone else, i.e., make "false positive" errors).- CSA, children seen as more credible
