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Grammar Cheatsheet
Who or Whom? Data or datum? And why do some people freak out when they see “15 items or less” at the grocery store? If you’re writing a paper, getting grammar right is really helpful. For one thing, it will protect you from gangs of Grammar Nazis. But more important, it’ll make you a better writer. Your readers will appreciate it, even if they aren’t conscious of why. This guide will cover those pesky words that we all get confused about from time to time. It will show you the right word to use when you’re clacking away at the keyboard. And above all, it will make your writing clearer.
Just One Small Caveat
The purpose of grammar is not to be 100%, absolutely correct. It’s to make your writing easier to understand. And there are few things in grammar where everyone agrees anyway. What’s more, grammar is constantly changing. With that in mind, some of these rules skirt the official, unyielding rules of those who believe grammar to be prescriptive. Rather, they reflect how grammar is working today (for an example, check out data vs datum).
Affect vs Effect
If you’re only going to learn just one rule from this cheatsheet, make it this one. Using these words incorrectly is so common that it’s difficult to know what the right usage is when you read it, let alone how to write it. That’s true of effect/affect more than anything. Fortunately, we’ve got a shortcut for you.
The Official Rules
In general, “affect” is a verb that means to have an impact on something and “effect” is a noun, as in the effect of something on something else. However, just to confuse things, “effect” can also be a verb meaning to cause something to happen. And, to further complicate things, “affect” can be noun, but only very rarely — generally in psychology.
Examples
Affect as verb The boy was affected by the trauma he had witnessed.
Affect as a noun The experiment triggered a strong negative affect on the participants. Effect as a noun The effect of the economic downturn was a depressed job market. Effect as a verb I hope to effect significant change at my organization in the coming years.
Rules of Thumb
Given the variety of forms these particular words can take, you might still be confused. Fortunately, there’s a shortcut. Assume that if a verb makes sense, it’s probably going to be “affect.” And if it’s a noun, it’s probably going to be “effect.” If you’re not sure, try switching in another noun and another verb to see if the sentence makes sense. Take, for example, the sentence, “The boy was streetcar by trauma he witnessed.” It doesn’t make any sense, since “streetcar” is a noun. But take the sentence, “The boy was bamboozled by the trauma he witnessed.” It does make grammatical sense, because bamboozle is a verb. The same goes for effect. Consider: “The streetcar of the economic downturn was a depressed job market.” Versus: “The bamboozle of the economic downturn was a depressed job market.” As you can see, only “streetcar” sounds right. Except vs Accept These two are difficult because they’re similarly spelled homophones. But they have two very different meanings.
The Official Rules
“Except” means to exclude something or say “everything but this one thing.” “Accept” means to receive something or recognize an idea as true or correct.
Examples
They’re, Their, and There This particular grammar rule gets a lot of discussion throughout popular culture. But the truth is, it’s not that hard to get this just right. And unlike a lot of “rules” on this list, their/there/they’re is one where there truly is no wiggle room. You’re either correct or not. Fortunately, it’s easy to use the right one.
The Official Rules
“They’re” is a contraction of “they are.” “Their” is the possessive form of “they.” It shows ownership of something. “There” is an adverb referring to a place or where something is. It points to where something is or is going.
Examples
- They’re wondering where the dog went.
- Their dog ran into the cafe.
- They found the dog when they went over there.
Rules of Thumb
If you want to know if you should be using “they’re” just switch out the word for “they are.” If it still makes sense, you’re good to go. For “their” and “there,” try replacing the word with “our.” If it still makes sense, then you should “their.” If it doesn’t, then you need to use “there.” For example:
- Our dog ran into the cafe. — Their dog ran into the cafe.
- They found the dog when they went over our. — They found the dog when they went over there.” The first sentence makes sense but the second doesn’t. Thus, the first sentence uses “their” and the second uses “there.” Two vs To vs Too “To,” in its various forms, is one of the most common words you’ll ever write. Knowing which “to” to use is critical. Fortunately, the rules are easy to remember.
The Official Rules and Examples
“Two” is the written version of the number 2: “An infinitive has two words.” “To” has two functions. First, it is used to show movement or direction: “Let’s go over to the library.” Second, it is used to create infinitives, which are verbs that are not bound to a subject. For example: “ Star Trek was a show meant to go boldly where no human had gone before.” The word “too” has two functions as well. First, it can be used as an adverb meaning “also.” For example: “I went to the store too .” “Too” can also be used as a modifier meaning “excessive.” For example, “The water was too hot.”
Rules of Thumb
Getting the right “to” is easy. First, unless you’re talking about the number 2, don’t use “two.” Second, “too” will very often go at the end of a sentence: “We went to the library too .” If it’s mid-sentence, however, and you’re not sure, substitute the word with “very” or “also.” If it makes sense with either, use “too.” Finally, if in doubt, use “to.” This is by far the most common one that you’ll use, so if you’re really not sure, this is your best guess. Data vs datum Yes, there is an actual rule here. However, it’s worth noting that, like many other words, data is used incorrectly so often it’s unlikely to have any impact on readability or comprehension. If you simply use what you think sounds best, 99% of the time that’s going to be absolutely fine. However, if you’re writing something academic, talking about primary research, or just want to get it 100% right, then here’s how you can know when to use data and when to use datum.
The Official Rules
“Data” is a Latin-based word and is the plural of “datum.” “Datum” is the singular version of “data.”
Examples
If it’s “goat” Don’t use “quote.” Breath vs Breathe This is another quote/quotation situation. But unlike there where it doesn’t matter too much if you get it right, this distinction is important. You will look ignorant if you use the wrong word.
The Official Rules
“Breath” is a noun, meaning the air in your lungs. You can take a quick breath or you can hold your breath. “Breathe” is a verb. It’s the doing version of breath. You take breaths, but what you are doing is breathing.
Examples
- He took a deep breath to steady his nerves.
- If you’re feeling stressed, remember to breathe through your nose.
Rules of Thumb
If you’re struggling to remember which one to use, here are two tricks to help you.
- Remember the extra “ e ” in “breath e ” is for “ e xhale,” since that’s what you do when you “breath e .”
- Switch the word for the word “death.” If it still makes sense, then “breath” is the word you want. If it doesn’t, then it needs to be “breathe.” Here’s another rhyming couplet: If it works with death It must be breath. It’s vs Its Even experienced writers make this mistake. And there’s a good reason: it isn’t logical.
The Official Rules
“It’s” is a contraction of “it is” or “it has.” “Its” (with no apostrophe) is the possessive form of “it” and is used as an attributive adjective. This means that it connects the adjective to the noun being described.
Examples
- It’s very cold outside.
- It’s been very cold outside.
- My cat destroyed its favorite toy.
Rules of Thumb
Like most contractions, expanding the word into its separate terms will tell you if you’re right or not. If you expand “it’s” into “it is” or “it has” and the sentence still makes sense, then using the apostrophe is correct. If not, then you should drop the apostrophe and use “its.” You’re vs Your Yet another problem caused by apostrophes.
The Official Rules
“You’re” is a contraction of “you are.” “Your” is the possessive version of you. It’s used mostly to show ownership of something, but it can be used for a few other things like an informal collective: “He’s your Average Joe.” The possessive function is the most common, and where the most mistakes crop up.
Examples
- Your suit is really nice.
- You’re suited well for this job.
Rules of Thumb
Like all contractions, the best way to know if you’re right is to simply expand the words out to you are. If the sentence says what you want, then it should be “you’re.” If it doesn’t then it should be your with no apostrophe. For example, “ You are suit is really nice” doesn’t make sense. But “ You are suited well for this job” does. Who’s vs Whose Once again, the apostrophe rears its ugly head. But as with It’s/Its and You’re/Your, it isn’t hard to figure out which one is right.
The Official Rules
The Official Rules and Example
Each other’s is the possessive form of each. Since we generally add ‘s to nouns to make them possessive, we do that here. The reason that it’s not “each others'” is because it would imply that “other” was a plural noun. For example, “We held each other’s hands” is correct. “We held each others’ hands” is not.
Rules of Thumb
The easiest way to remember this is to remember that “other” is singular. If you remember that, then you can’t go wrong. Alot vs A Lot Sorry to all you “alot” fans out there, but there’s some bad news. “Alot” just isn’t a word. No major dictionary recognizes it. (Note: “allot” is a word!) So the rule is easy. Never, ever use “alot.” It’s always “a lot.” Then vs Than The difference between “then” and “than” is probably one of the most confusing issues commonly facing a writer. This is particularly true because each of these words has so many functions.
The Official Rules
“Then” is an adverb but can be used as an adjective. Normally, it’s used in some way related to time or process. “Than” is a conjunction used to compare two or more things.
Examples
- I was at the pool then.
- First you add the eggs, then you add the sugar.
- I like potatoes more than carrots.
Rules of Thumb
If you’re talking about something that happens in a series, you use “then.” If you’re not talking about a series like that, you probably mean “than.”
Another way to remember it is “than” is for making comparisons. Finally, you always have more “than” or less “than” someone else. Never more “then” someone else. Ensure vs insure You might be surprised, but ensure and insure actually have subtly different meanings. And in some contexts, getting just the right word can be important.
The Official Rules
“Ensure” means to guarantee something will or won’t happen. “Insure” means to arrange for insurance for something or arrange protection against something.
Examples
- I ensure that my clients get the best service.
- He insured his boat for $25,000.
Rules of Thumb
To get the right word, just remember that insure relates to insurance. If you’re not talking in some way about insurance, you probably mean “ensure.” Principle vs principal Principle or principal is always tricky because you probably don’t use these words all that often and they’re extremely similar. It makes it hard to remember the right one, and usually means you have to look it up every time you want to us it.
The Official Rules
“Principle” is straightforward. It’s a noun that means idea or rule. “Principal” is harder. It’s both an adjective and a noun, depending on how it’s used. As an adjective, it describes something of primary importance. And as a noun, it means the most important part of something. “Principal” also has special meaning in finance having to do with the amount of money borrowed or invested.
Examples
- Our organization is built on the principle of respect.
- She is the principal architect of the project.
- I bought a house for $100,000 with 30% down, so my principal is $70,000.
Officially, there is no real rule on when to use one or the other, but generally “farther” relates to measurable distances and “further” relates to abstract distances. This is particularly true in American English.
Examples
- I can throw the ball farther than you.
- I had gone further in my career than I ever expected.
Rules of Thumb
The best way to remember which one to use is that you use “farther” for physical distances and “further” for metaphorical ones. Grammar Girl podcast creator Mignon Fogarty says the easiest way to remember this is that farther had far in it, which obviously relates to physical distance. Lay vs Lie “Lay” and “lie” (not to be confused with lye) are two little, tiny, completely bewildering words. Here’s how you use them correctly every time.
The Official Rules
“Lay” is a verb that means to put something down carefully. It can usually be replaced with the verb “to place.” “Lie” is a verb that means to rest on a horizontal surface. It’s a synonym of “recline.” Lay requires a direct object — you need something to lay down, like a brick. Lie has no such requirement — you don’t need a direct object to lie down. That’s why you can “lie down for a nap.” There’s no direct object, so we use “lie.” Where is gets confusing is with the past tense. The past tense of lie is lay. Confused? Maybe this table will help: Simple Present Present Participle Simple Past Past Participle Lie Lying Lay Lain Lay Laying Laid Laid
Examples
Lay
- They lay down the beach towels.
- They are laying down the beach towels.
- They laid down the beach towels.
- They have laid down the beach towels. Lie
- They lie down for a nap.
- They are lying down for a nap.
- They lay down for a nap.
- They have lain for a nap.
Rules of Thumb
A good way to remember which is which is the term, “Lay it on me.” “It” is the direct object, which is why it’s “Lay it on me,” and not “Lie it on me.” And whenever you’re not sure, just write out the six words above. Usually, when you write them all out, it becomes clear which one is right. Die vs Dye This is another tricky one because of the similarities between die and dye in spelling and the fact that they’re homophones. Plus, they’re funny looking words.
The Official Rules
“Die” is both a verb meaning to become dead as well as a noun, as in the singular form of “dice” — the things people use for gambling and role playing games. “Dye” is both a noun and a verb and refers to coloring something and that something being colored.
Examples
- He rolled the die and got a six.
- Fred died from cancer last year.
- She dyed her friend’s hair blue.
- He used a red dye for his project.
Rules of Thumb
The easiest way to remember whether to use “die” or “dye” is to think of the movie Die Hard. It’s about a rogue cop fighting off Hans Gruber at Christmas, not about a Scottish shepherd dying wool. Discreet vs Discrete
Rules of Thumb
“Illicit” is obviously derived from the same word as “illegal.” So that isn’t hard to remember. “Elicit” comes from the Latin word elicere , which means to produce as if by magic, like pulling a rabbit out of a hat. But mostly, you will know you want to use the word “elicit” because what is being done is not illegal. Precede vs Proceed “Precede” and “proceed” are uniquely frustrating for writers because not only do they sound the same, but they mean broadly the same things — go forward. However, their more nuanced meanings are quite different, so it’s worth knowing when to use one over the other.
The Official Rules
“Precede” is a verb that means to happen before something else or be in front of something in an order or process. “Proceed,” on the other hand, means to go forward, usually after an interruption. The idea is that whatever action or thing you’re talking about is part of a process that’s already in motion, rather than an action or thing that happens before a process starts.
Examples
- The eggs usually precede the flour when you’re making cookies.
- The cook proceeded despite not having any eggs, and the cookies were terrible.
Rules of Thumb
Pre- usually means “come before.” Prenuptial agreements come before marriage, pre-K comes before kindergarten, pre-order means order before the product comes out. The same goes for the pre- in “precede.” If you’re using precedes, you’re talking about something that comes before something else. A vs An Word processors are usually good at picking up this particular error, but it’s still good to know when to use “a” and when to use “an.”
The Official Rules
“A” and “an” are indefinite articles that tell the reader the noun that’s being talked about is generic, not specific. For example, “I saw a movie about a boat.” Compare that to, “I saw the movie Titanic about the boat Titanic.”
Oddly, in English, for indefinite articles, it’s the sound that’s important to whether you use “a” or “an.” “An” is used when the next word starts with a vowel, or makes a vowel sound. “A” is used the rest of the time.
Examples
- I want to get a snickers bar.
- I want to get an ice cream cone.
- I went to the cafe for an hour. (Note that even though “hour” doesn’t start with a vowel, the sound of the word does, so it is preceded by “an” rather than “a.”)
Rules of Thumb
The rules here are easy. Keep vowels separate! If you’re not sure, read the sentence out loud and listen to how it sounds. Most of the time, what sounds right is what will be right. There is still some disagreement about words like “historical.” As far back as Fowler’s Modern English Usage (1926), the advice has been to use “a” if you aspirate the “h.” Since virtually no one says “‘Istorical” today, you should use “a historical” and not “an historical.” When speaking, this is obviously true. Saying “an historical” makes the speaker look paradoxically ignorant and pretentious. Advice vs Advise “Advice” and “advise” are often used interchangeably, but in fact carry two distinctly different meanings.
The Official Rules
“Advice” is a noun meaning “guidance or recommendations.” “Advise” is the verb meaning to provide advice.
Examples
- I would like some advice on how best to write a blog.
- I advised my friend on how to shop for backpacks.
Rules of Thumb
The easiest way to remember this distinction is to read the words aloud. The “s” in “advise” is pronounced with a “z” sound and is clearly the verb. “Advice” sounds just like it is spelled and is clearly the noun. Compliment vs Complement
This is a classic mistake. There are a few reasons why this is so. For one thing, the similarly structured word “read” does not change to “red” for its past tense. Equally vexing is that “led” is pronounced the same way the element “lead” is.
The Official Rules
“Lead” is a verb meaning to be in charge of something else. And as we just mentioned, it is also a metal that is pronounced “led.” “Led” is the past tense of lead.
Examples
- I like to lead my team to victory.
- Last night, I led my team to victory.
- Lead is extremely toxic, especial to children.
Rules of Thumb
The best way to remember that led is the past tense of lead is to remember these rhyming couplets: In present tense, you lead the way But once you’re done, you drop the “a.” Aisle vs Isle These two funny looking words cause no end of confusion. Here’s how you get them right.
The Official Rules and Examples
“Aisle” is a noun meaning a narrow passage through something. For example, “The store was so crowded it was hard to get through the toy aisle.” “Isle,” on the other hand, is a term for a small island, and is often made plural (“isles”) to describe a chain of small islands. For example, “The Isle of Man is a small island in the Irish Sea.”
Rules of Thumb
Remember that “isle” and “island” look the same, and you’ll never be browsing the “isles” again. Stationery vs Stationary
These words are asymmetric. Writing “stationery” for “stationary” would likely look bad. Most people wouldn’t notice if you wrote “stationary” for “stationery,” however.
The Official Rules
“Stationary” is an adjective meaning fixed or not moving. It can also mean stable or unchanging. “Stationery” refers to the stuff on your desk — pens, papers, envelopes, and other generic office material. In particular, it’s often used to mean paper that has matching envelops.
Examples
- The truck was idling at the light, completely stationary.
- Wilson had some beautiful stationery on his desk.
Rules of Thumb
Most people know the word “stationary,” which is why “stationery” is so often misspelled “stationary.” All you really have to remember is that “stationery” is not “stationary.” Then you can look it up, or just remember that it has that odd “e” where the “a” ought to go. Poor vs Pore vs Pour So many options. Which poor to use?
The Official Rules
“Poor” is an adjective meaning to be without. Usually it refers to money (“alms for the poor”) but can also be combined with other words to reference being without something other than cash (eg, “time poor”). “Pore” is both a noun meaning a tiny hole in a surface (using skin) and a verb, meaning to look something over extremely carefully and with great interest. Finally, “pour” is a verb meaning to move liquid in the form of a stream.
Examples
- Poor people often can’t cover basic expenses.
- If your pores get clogged, it can lead to infection.
- It poured with rain all weekend.
Rules of Thumb
