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Homework
O’Grady, p. 103, #
Do [p] and [b] belong to separate phonemes?
asaba!p ‘goose’
paskwa!w ‘prairie’
ospwa!gan ‘pipe’
mi!bit ‘tooth’
pimi! ‘lard’
wa!bos ‘rabbit’
na!be!w ‘man’
−sonorant
−continuant
−voice
oLABIAL
→ [+voice]/V V
1
Homework
O’Grady, p. 103, #
Do [t] and [d] belong to separate phonemes?
kodak ‘again’
tahki ‘often’
nisto ‘three’
adim ‘dog’
mi!bit ‘tooth’
mide ‘heart’
−sonorant
−continuant
−voice
oCORONAL
+anterior
→ [+voice]/V V
2
Homework
O’Grady, p. 103, #
Same for [k] / ["] and [t#] / [d$]
General rule: voiceless non-continuants become voiced
between vowels (‘intervocalically’)
Derivations
/mit#iht#ij/ ‘hand’ /t#i!kahikan/ ‘axe’ /mi!pit/ ‘tooth’
[mid$iht#ij] [t#i!"ahi"an] [mi!bit]
[
−continuant
−voice
]
→ [+voice]/V V
Homework
O’Grady, p. 104, #
/hj%ndæ/! [h%ndej]
/hj/ isn’t a possible onset before /%/, so /hj%/! /h%/
Words can’t end in a lax vowel, so /æ/ !/e/![ej]
Homework
O’Grady, p. 106, #
Voiceless stops become corresponding fricatives
between vowels (=LENITION or ASSIMILATION)
−syllabic
+consonantal
−sonorant
−continuant
−delayed release
−voice
→ [+continuant]/
+syllabic
−consonantal
+sonorant
+syllabic
−consonantal
+sonorant
5
Homework
O’Grady, p. 106, #
A schwa is inserted between a voiced stop and a
word-final voiced fricative (=EPENTHESIS)
0 / → [+reduced]/
−syllabic
+consonantal
−sonorant
−continuant
−delayed release
+voice
−syllabic
+consonantal
−sonorant
+continuant
−delayed release
+voice
6
Homework
O’Grady, p. 106, #
Low unrounded vowels become rounded before m
(=ASSIMILATION)
+syllabic
−consonantal
+sonorant
oDORSAL
+low
→
[ oLABIAL
+round
]
/
−syllabic
+consonantal
+sonorant
+continuant
+nasal
oLABIAL
Homework
O’Grady, p. 106, #
Epenthetic [e] is inserted before a word-initial
sequence of two obstruents
[d] becomes [n] before any nasal consonant
A vowel becomes rounded between two labial
consonants
Linguistics
Typology how languages vary
Historical linguistics how languages change over time
Sociolinguistics how languages vary socially
Psycholinguistics
how language is processed by
individuals
Applied linguistics
how language can be taught and
learned
Computational linguistics
how computers can be designed to
work with human language
13
Words
Morphology is about words, but what is a word?
Orthographic word
Phonological word
Syntactic word
Semantic word
14
Word structure
The basic unit of word structure is the morpheme, the
smallest meaningful element
Simple vs. complex words
Bound vs. free morphemes
Roots vs. bases vs. affixes ( prefix vs. infix )
V
Base for -ed → V
Root and base for -en → A Af Af
black en ed
Figure 4.3 A word illustrating the difference between a root and a base
Transparency File 2 10/28/04 9:41 AM Page 48
Meaning relations
Three main types: inflection, derivation, and
compounding
Inflectional morphology relates word forms that
belong to a single ‘word family’ or lexeme
Derivational morphology creates new words, with a
change in meaning and/or category
Compounding combines free forms
Endocentric vs. exocentric compounds
Clitics are bound words
Simple vs. special clitics
Word structure
Derivational rules can lead to structural ambiguities
Cf. unhealthy
Bracketing paradoxes ( uneasier, ungrammaticality,
macroeconomist )
49 (Chapter 4, p. 120) Transparency master copyright © 2005 by Bedford/St. Martin’s
V
A
V Af Af Af
act ive ate ion
Figure 4.6 A word with a multilayered internal structure
a. N b. N
A N
Af A Af Af A Af
un happy ness un happy ness
Figure 4.7 Two possible structures for the word unhappiness
17
Finding morphemes
Principle 1:
Forms with the same meaning and the same shape in
all their occurrences are instances of the same
morpheme.
Principle 2:
Forms with the same meaning but different sound
shapes may be instances of the same morpheme if their
distributions do not overlap.
Principle 3:
Not all morphemes are segmental.
Principle 4:
A morpheme may have a zero allomorph provided it
has a non-zero allomorph.
18
Speech
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds
Phonology is the study of linguistic sound systems
Two perspectives: articulatory phonetics and acoustic
phonetics
Language production and perception is closely tied to
the articulatory system
Some choices:
vowels vs. consonants
larynx: voiced vs. voiceless sounds
position of tongue, lips
oral vs. nasal sounds
Consonants
Consonants involve a radical constriction of the
airstream; vowels don’t
Consonants can be classified by:
Voicing
Place of articulation
labial, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal
Manner of articulation
stop, nasal, fricative (sibilant vs. affricate),
approximate, tap
Contrast
Two phones are in contrastive distribution if they can
occur in the same environment with different meanings
( minimal pairs )
Two phones are in complementary distribution if they
never occur in the same environment
Phones vs. phonemes vs. allophones
25
Start
List phonetic
environments
Same?
Overlapping distribution
Complementary distribution
Prediction is
possible
Allophones of the same phoneme
Prediction is
impossible
Same meaning?
Free variation
Contrastive distribution
Allophones of different
phonemes
YES
NO
NO
YES
26
Phonology
Features
Natural classes, distinctive features
Syllable structure
Onset, nucleus, coda, rhyme
Phonological rules:
A! B / X __ Y
(read “ A becomes B when it occurs between X and Y ”)
Rule ordering, cyclicity
Constraints
More recent models of phonology (e.g., Optimality
Theory) drop rules in favor of constraints
Alternate rankings account for observed phonological
variation between languages
Factorial typology: a system of n constraints ‘predicts’
the existence of up to n! language types
