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ALAN DIX, JANET FINLAY,
GREGORY D. ABOWD, RUSSELL BEALE
THIRD EDITION
HUMAN–COMPUTER
INTERACTION
Human–Computer Interaction
Human–Computer Interaction
Third Edition
Alan Dix, Lancaster University
Janet Finlay, Leeds Metropolitan University
Gregory D. Abowd, Georgia Institute of Technology
Russell Beale, University of Birmingham
Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England
and Associated Companies throughout the world
Visit us on the world wide web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk
First published 1993 Second edition published 1998 Third edition published 2004
© Prentice-Hall Europe 1993, 1998 © Pearson Education Limited 2004
The rights of Alan Dix, Janet E. Finlay, Gregory D. Abowd and Russell Beale to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP.
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ISBN-13: 978-0-13-046109- ISBN-10: 0-13-046109-
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 10 09 08 07 06
Typeset in 10/12 1 / 2 pt Minion by 35 Printed and bound by Scotprint, Haddington
C ONTENTS
Guided tour xiv Foreword xvi Preface to the third edition xix
- Introduction Publisher’s acknowledgements xxiii - FOUNDATIONS
- Chapter 1 The human
- Chapter 2 The computer
- Chapter 3 The interaction
- Chapter 4 Paradigms - DESIGN PROCESS
- Chapter 5 Interaction design basics
- Chapter 6 HCI in the software process
- Chapter 7 Design rules
- Chapter 8 Implementation support
- Chapter 9 Evaluation techniques
- Chapter 10 Universal design
- Chapter 11 User support - MODELS AND THEORIES
- Chapter 12 Cognitive models
- Chapter 13 Socio-organizational issues and stakeholder requirements
- Chapter 14 Communication and collaboratio0n models vi Brief Contents
- Chapter 15 Task analysis
- Chapter 16 Dialog notations and design
- Chapter 17 Models of the system
- Chapter 18 Modeling rich interaction - OUTSIDE THE BOX
- Chapter 19 Groupware
- Chapter 20 Ubiquitous computing and augmented realities
- Chapter 21 Hypertext, multimedia and the world wide web - References - Index
- Part - Introduction Publisher’s acknowledgements xxiii - FOUNDATIONS
- Chapter 1 The human - 1.1 Introduction - 1.2 Input–output channels - Design Focus: Getting noticed - Design Focus: Where’s the middle? - 1.3 Human memory - Design Focus: Cashing in - Design Focus: 7 ± 2 revisited - 1.4 Thinking: reasoning and problem solving - Design Focus: Human error and false memories - 1.5 Emotion - 1.6 Individual differences - 1.7 Psychology and the design of interactive systems - 1.8 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 2 The computer - 2.1 Introduction - 2.2 Text entry devices - Design Focus: Numeric keypads - 2.3 Positioning, pointing and drawing
- Part
- 2.4 Display devices viii Contents
- Design Focus: Hermes: a situated display
- 2.5 Devices for virtual reality and 3D interaction
- 2.6 Physical controls, sensors and special devices
- Design Focus: Feeling the road
- Design Focus: Smart-Its – making using sensors easy
- 2.7 Paper: printing and scanning
- Design Focus: Readability of text
- 2.8 Memory
- 2.9 Processing and networks
- Design Focus: The myth of the infinitely fast machine
- 2.10 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 3 The interaction - 3.1 Introduction - 3.2 Models of interaction - Design Focus: Video recorder - 3.3 Frameworks and HCI - 3.4 Ergonomics - Design Focus: Industrial interfaces - 3.5 Interaction styles - Design Focus: Navigation in 3D and 2D - 3.6 Elements of the WIMP interface - Design Focus: Learning toolbars - 3.7 Interactivity - 3.8 The context of the interaction - Design Focus: Half the picture? - 3.9 Experience, engagement and fun
- 3.10 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 4 Paradigms - 4.1 Introduction - 4.2 Paradigms for interaction - 4.3 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading - DESIGN PROCESS Contents ix
- Chapter 5 Interaction design basics - 5.1 Introduction - 5.2 What is design? - 5.3 The process of design - 5.4 User focus - Design Focus: Cultural probes - 5.5 Scenarios - 5.6 Navigation design - Design Focus: Beware the big button trap - Design Focus: Modes - 5.7 Screen design and layout - Design Focus: Alignment and layout matter - Design Focus: Checking screen colors - 5.8 Iteration and prototyping - 5.9 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 6 HCI in the software process - 6.1 Introduction - 6.2 The software life cycle - 6.3 Usability engineering - 6.4 Iterative design and prototyping - Design Focus: Prototyping in practice - 6.5 Design rationale - 6.6 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 7 Design rules - 7.1 Introduction - 7.2 Principles to support usability - 7.3 Standards - 7.4 Guidelines - 7.5 Golden rules and heuristics - 7.6 HCI patterns - 7.7 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Part
- Chapter 8 Implementation support x Contents - 8.1 Introduction - 8.2 Elements of windowing systems - 8.3 Programming the application - Design Focus: Going with the grain - 8.4 Using toolkits - Design Focus: Java and AWT - 8.5 User interface management systems - 8.6 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 9 Evaluation techniques - 9.1 What is evaluation? - 9.2 Goals of evaluation - 9.3 Evaluation through expert analysis - 9.4 Evaluation through user participation - 9.5 Choosing an evaluation method - 9.6 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 10 Universal design - 10.1 Introduction - 10.2 Universal design principles - 10.3 Multi-modal interaction - Design Focus: Designing websites for screen readers - Design Focus: Choosing the right kind of speech - Design Focus: Apple Newton - 10.4 Designing for diversity - Design Focus: Mathematics for the blind - 10.5 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 11 User support - 11.1 Introduction - 11.2 Requirements of user support - 11.3 Approaches to user support - 11.4 Adaptive help systems - Design Focus: It’s good to talk – help from real people - 11.5 Designing user support systems - 11.6 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading - MODELS AND THEORIES Contents xi
- Chapter 12 Cognitive models - 12.1 Introduction - 12.2 Goal and task hierarchies - Design Focus: GOMS saves money - 12.3 Linguistic models - 12.4 The challenge of display-based systems - 12.5 Physical and device models - 12.6 Cognitive architectures - 12.7 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 13 Socio-organizational issues and stakeholder requirements - 13.1 Introduction - 13.2 Organizational issues - Design Focus: Implementing workflow in Lotus Notes - 13.3 Capturing requirements - Design Focus: Tomorrow’s hospital – using participatory design - 13.4 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 14 Communication and collaboration models - 14.1 Introduction - 14.2 Face-to-face communication - Design Focus: Looking real – Avatar Conference - 14.3 Conversation - 14.4 Text-based communication - 14.5 Group working - 14.6 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 15 Task analysis - 15.1 Introduction - 15.2 Differences between task analysis and other techniques - 15.3 Task decomposition - 15.4 Knowledge-based analysis - 15.5 Entity–relationship-based techniques - 15.6 Sources of information and data collection - 15.7 Uses of task analysis
- Part
- 15.8 Summary xii Contents
- Exercises
- Recommended reading
- Chapter 16 Dialog notations and design - 16.1 What is dialog? - 16.2 Dialog design notations - 16.3 Diagrammatic notations - Design Focus: Using STNs in prototyping - Design Focus: Digital watch – documentation and analysis - 16.4 Textual dialog notations - 16.5 Dialog semantics - 16.6 Dialog analysis and design - 16.7 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 17 Models of the system - 17.1 Introduction - 17.2 Standard formalisms - 17.3 Interaction models - 17.4 Continuous behavior - 17.5 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading
- Chapter 18 Modeling rich interaction - 18.1 Introduction - 18.2 Status–event analysis - 18.3 Rich contexts - 18.4 Low intention and sensor-based interaction - Design Focus: Designing a car courtesy light - 18.5 Summary - Exercises - Recommended reading - OUTSIDE THE BOX
- Chapter 19 Groupware - 19.1 Introduction - 19.2 Groupware systems
- Part
- 19.3 Computer-mediated communication Contents xiii
- Design Focus: SMS in action
- 19.4 Meeting and decision support systems
- 19.5 Shared applications and artifacts
- 19.6 Frameworks for groupware
- Design Focus: TOWER – workspace awareness
- 19.7 Implementing synchronous groupware
- 19.8 Summary
- Exercises
- Recommended reading
- Chapter 20 Ubiquitous computing and augmented realities
- 20.1 Introduction
- 20.2 Ubiquitous computing applications research
- Design Focus: Ambient Wood – augmenting the physical
- Design Focus: Classroom 2000/eClass – deploying and evaluating ubicomp
- Design Focus: Shared experience
- 20.3 Virtual and augmented reality
- Design Focus: Applications of augmented reality
- 20.4 Information and data visualization
- Design Focus: Getting the size right
- 20.5 Summary
- Exercises
- Recommended reading
- Chapter 21 Hypertext, multimedia and the world wide web
- 21.1 Introduction
- 21.2 Understanding hypertext
- 21.3 Finding things
- 21.4 Web technology and issues
- 21.5 Static web content
- 21.6 Dynamic web content
- 21.7 Summary
- Exercises
- Recommended reading
- References
- Index
Guided tour xv
732 Chapter 20 n Ubiquitous computing and augmented realities within these environments. Much of our understanding of work has developed fromFordist and Taylorist principles on the structuring of activities and tasks. Evaluation within HCI reflects these roots and is often predicated on notions of task and themeasurement of performance and efficiency in meeting these goals and tasks. when we move away from structured and paid work to other activities. For example,However, it is not clear that these measures can apply universally across activities D ESIGN FOCUS Shared experience You are in the Mackintosh Interpretation Centre in an arts center in Glasgow, Scotland. You notice aman wearing black wandering around looking at the exhibits and then occasionally at a small PDA he is holding. As you get closer he appears to be talking to himself, but then you realize he is simply talkinginto a head-mounted microphone. ‘Some people can never stop using their mobile phone’, you think. As you are looking at one exhibit, he comes across and suddenly cranes forward to look more closely,getting right in front of you. ‘How rude’, you think. The visitor is taking part in the City project – a mixed-reality experience. He is talking to two otherpeople at remote sites, one who has a desktop VR view of the exhibition and the other just a website. However, they can all see representations of each other. The visitor is being tracked by ultrasound andhe appears in the VR world. Also, the web user’s current page locates her in a particular part of the virtual exhibition. All of the users see a map of the exhibitiion showing where they all are. You might think that in such an experiment the person actually in the museum would take the lead, butin fact real groups using this system seemed to have equal roles and really had a sense of shared experi- ence despite their very different means of seeing the exhibition.See the book website for a full case study: /e3/casestudy/city/
City project: physical presence, VR interfaces and web interface. Source: Courtesy ofMatthew Chalmers, note: City is an Equator project
Recommended reading 509 RECOMMENDED READING J. Carroll, editor, Science , Morgan Kaufmann, 2003. HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks: Toward an Interdisciplinary See chapters by Perry on distributed cognition, Monk on common ground andKraut on social psychology. L. A. Suchman, Communication Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human–Machine , Cambridge University Press, 1987. This book popularized ethnography within HCI. It puts forward the viewpointthat most actions are not pre-planned, but situated within the context in which they occur. The principal domain of the book is the design of help for a photo-copier. This is itself a single-user task, but the methodology applied is based on both ethnographic and conversational analysis. The book includes several chap-ters discussing the contextual nature of language and analysis of conversation transcripts. T. Winograd and F. Flores, Foundation for Design , Addison-Wesley, 1986. Understanding Computers and Cognition: A New Like Suchman, this book emphasizes the contextual nature of language and theweakness of traditional artificial intelligence research. It includes an account of speech act theory as applied to Coordinator. Many people disagree with theauthors’ use of speech act theory, but, whether by application or reaction, this work has been highly influential. S. Greenberg, editor,Academic Press, 1991. Computer-supported Cooperative Work and Groupware , The contents of this collection originally made up two special issues of the International Journal of Man–Machine Studies. In addition, the book contains Greenberg’s extensive annotated bibliography of CSCW, a major entry point forany research into the field. Updated versions of the bibliography can be obtained from the Department of Computer Science, University of Calgary, Calgary,Alberta, Canada. Communications of the ACM puting’, December 1991., Vol. 34, No. 12, special issue on ‘collaborative com- Several issues of the journal1993 have a special emphasis on CSCW. Interacting with Computers from late 1992 through early Computer-Supported Cooperative Work issues of the journal Collaborative Computing is a journal dedicated to CSCW. See also back. This ran independently for a while, but has now merged with Computer-Supported Cooperative Work. See also the recommended reading list for Chapter 19, especially the conferenceproceedings.
Exercises 393 SUMMARY Universal design is about designing systems that are accessible by all users in allcircumstances, taking account of human diversity in disabilities, age and culture. Universal design helps everyone – for example, designing a system so that it can beused by someone who is deaf or hard of hearing will benefit other people working in noisy environments or without audio facilities. Designing to be accessible to screen-reading systems will make websites better for mobile users and older browsers. through a range of different input and output channels, exploiting redundancy.Multi-modal systems provide access to system information and functionality Such systems will enable users with sensory, physical or cognitive impairments tomake use of the channels that they can use most effectively. But all users benefit from multi-modal systems that utilize more of our senses in an involving interactiveexperience. someone and whether there are any potential confusions or misunderstandings inFor any design choice we should ask ourselves whether our decision is excluding our choice.
10.
E XERCISES 10.1 Is multi-modality always a good thing? Justify your answer. 10.2 What are (i) auditory icons and (ii) earcons? How can they be used to benefit both visuallyimpaired and sighted users? 10.3 Research your country’s legislation relating to accessibility of technology for disabled people.What are the implications of this to your future career in computing? 10.4 Take your university website or another site of your choice and assess it for accessibility usingBobby. How would you recommend improving the site? 10.5 How could systems be made more accessible to older users? 10.6 Interview either (i) a person you know over 65 or (ii) a child you know under 16 about theirexperience, attitude and expectations of computers. What factors would you take into account if you were designing a website aimed at this person? 10.7 Use the screen reader simulation available at www.webaim.org/simulations/screenreader toexperience something of what it is like to access the web using a screen reader. Can you find the answers to the test questions on the site?
Annotated further reading encourages readers to research topics in depth
Design Focus mini case studies highlight practical applications of HCI concepts
Frequent links to the book website for further information
Chapter summaries reinforce student learning. Exercises at the end of chapters can be used by teachers or individuals to test understanding
F OREWORD
Human–computer interaction is a difficult endeavor with glorious rewards. Designing interactive computer systems to be effective, efficient, easy, and enjoyable to use is important, so that people and society may realize the benefits of computation- based devices. The subtle weave of constraints and their trade-offs – human, machine, algorithmic, task, social, aesthetic, and economic – generates the difficulty. The reward is the creation of digital libraries where scholars can find and turn the pages of virtual medieval manuscripts thousands of miles away; medical instruments that allow a surgical team to conceptualize, locate, and monitor a complex neuro- surgical operation; virtual worlds for entertainment and social interaction, respon- sive and efficient government services, from online license renewal to the analysis of parliamentary testimony; or smart telephones that know where they are and under- stand limited speech. Interaction designers create interaction in virtual worlds and embed interaction in physical worlds. Human–computer interaction is a specialty in many fields, and is therefore multi- disciplinary, but it has an intrinsic relationship as a subfield to computer science. Most interactive computing systems are for some human purpose and interact with humans in human contexts. The notion that computer science is the study of algo- rithms has virtue as an attempt to bring foundational rigor, but can lead to ignoring constraints foundational to the design of successful interactive computer systems. A lesson repeatedly learned in engineering is that a major source of failure is the narrow optimization of a design that does not take sufficient account of contextual factors. Human users and their contexts are major components of the design problem that cannot be wished away simply because they are complex to address. In fact, that largest part of program code in most interactive systems deals with user interaction. Inadequate attention to users and task context not only leads to bad user interfaces, it puts entire systems at risk. The problem is how to take into account the human and contextual part of a sys- tem with anything like the rigor with which other parts of the system are understood and designed – how to go beyond fuzzy platitudes like ‘know the user’ that are true, but do not give a method for doing or a test for having done. This is difficult to do, but inescapable, and, in fact, capable of progress. Over the years, the need to take into account human aspects of technical systems has led to the creation of new fields of study: applied psychology, industrial engineering, ergonomics, human factors,
xviii Foreword
This textbook, by Alan Dix, Janet Finlay, Gregory Abowd, and Russell Beale, represents how far human–computer interaction has come in developing and organizing technical results for the design and understanding of interactive systems. Remarkably, by the light of their text, it is pretty far, satisfying all the just- enumerated conclusions. This book makes an argument that by now there are many teachable results in human–computer interaction by weight alone! It makes an argu- ment that these results form a cumulative discipline by its structure, with sections that organize the results systematically, characterizing human, machine, interaction, and the design process. There are analytic models, but also code implementation examples. It is no surprise that methods of task analysis play a prominent role in the text as do theories to help in the design of the interaction. Usability evaluation methods are integrated in their proper niche within the larger framework. In short, the codification of the field of human–computer interaction in this text is now starting to look like other subfields of computer science. Students by studying the text can learn how to understand and build interactive systems. Human–computer interaction as represented by the text fits together with other parts of computer science. Moreover, human–computer interaction as presented is a challenge problem for advancing theory in cognitive science, design, business, or social-technical systems. Given where the field was just a few short years ago, the creation of this text is a monumental achievement. The way is open to reap the glorious rewards of interactive systems through a markedly less difficult endeavor, both for designer and for user.
Stuart K. Card Palo Alto Research Center, Palo Alto, California
P REFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
It is ten years since the first edition of this book was published and much has changed. Ubiquitous computing and rich sensor-filled environments are finding their way out of the laboratory, not just into films and fiction, but also into our workplaces and homes. Now the computer really has broken its bounds of plastic and glass: we live in networked societies where personal computing devices from mobile phones to smart cards fill our pockets, and electronic devices surround us at home and at work. The web too has grown from a largely academic network into the hub of business and everyday lives. As the distinctions between physical and digital, work and leisure start to break down, human–computer interaction is also radically changing. We have tried to capture some of the excitement of these changes in this revised edition, including issues of physical devices in Chapters 2 and 3, discussion of web interfaces in Chapter 21, ubiquitous computing in Chapters 4 and 20, and new models and paradigms for interaction in these new environments in Chapters 17 and
- We have reflected aspects of the shift in use of technology from work to leisure in the analysis of user experience in Chapter 3, and in several of the boxed examples and case studies in the text. This new edition of Human–Computer Interaction is not just tracking these changes but looking ahead at emerging areas. However, it is also rooted in strong principles and models that are not dependent on the passing technologies of the day. We are excited both by the challenges of the new and by the established foundations, as it is these foundations that will be the means by which today’s students understand tomorrow’s technology. So we make no apology for continuing the focus of previous editions on the theoretical and con- ceptual models that underpin our discipline. As the use of technology has changed, these models have expanded. In particular, the insular individual focus of early work is increasingly giving way to include the social and physical context. This is reflected in the expanded treatment of social and organizational analysis, including ethnography, in Chapter 13, and the analysis of artifacts in the physical environment in Chapter 18.
