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Human Growth and Development Study
Guide - WGU
Multidirectional - ☑️ Some dimensions expand and others shrink Multidimensional - ☑️ Has biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions Plastic - ☑️ The capacity for change Lifelong - ☑️ Early adulthood is not the endpoint of development; no age period dominates development Multidisciplinary - ☑️ Various areas of study have an interest in the field of development through the life span Contextual - ☑️ All development occurs within a context, or setting (social, cultural, and historic factors) Nature - ☑️ Nature refers to an organism's biological inheritance. Nature Example - ☑️ We walk before we talk, speak one word before two words, grow rapidly in infancy and less so in early childhood, experience a rush of sex hormones in puberty, reach the peak of our physical strength in late adolescence and early adulthood, and then physically decline. Nurture - ☑️ Nurture refers to an organism's environmental experiences Nurture Example - ☑️ Experiences run the gamut from the individual's biological environment (nutrition, medical care, drugs, and physical accidents) to the social environment (family, peers, schools, community, media, and culture) Continuity - ☑️ focuses on the degree to which the development involves a gradual, cumulative change continuity example - ☑️ An oak grows from a seedling to a giant oak, it becomes more of an oak - its development is continuous discontinuity - ☑️ focuses on the degree to which development involves distinct stages
Discontinuity example - ☑️ as an insect grows from a caterpillar to a chrysalis to a butterfly, it passes through a sequence of stages in which change is qualitative rather than quantitatively different. Similarly, at some point a child moves from not being able to think abstractlyl about the world to being able to do so. Stability - ☑️ Debate about whether we become older renditions of our early experience Stability Example - ☑️ Many argue that if an individual is shy throughout life, this stability is due to heredity and possibly early experiences in which the infant or young child encountered considerable stress when interacting with people Change - ☑️ We develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development Change example - ☑️ Developmentalists who emphasize change take the more optimistic view that later experiences can produce change. Recall that in the life-span perspective, plasticity, the potential for change, exists throughout the life span. Freud's Theories - ☑️ Freud believed that people's problems were the result of experiences early in life. He thought that as children grow up, their focus on pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals. As a result, we go through five stages of psychosexual development: Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Erikson's Theory - ☑️ Focuses on Psychosocial. Eight Stages of human development. Each stage consists of unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved. Trust versus mistrust - ☑️ Erikson's first psychosocial stage, which is experienced in the first year of life. The development of trust during infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live. Autonomy versus Shame and doubt - ☑️ Erikson's second stage. This stage occurs in late infancy and toddlerhodd ( 1-3 years) after gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy. They realize their will. If Infants and toddlers are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt. Initiative versus guilt - ☑️ Erikson's Third stage of development occurs during the preschool years. As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they face new challenges that require active purposeful, responsible behavior. Feelings of guilt may arise, though, if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel anxious.
☑️ Piaget's fourth and final stage that occurs between 11-15 years of age and continues through adulthood. Individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think in abstract and more logical terms. as part of thinking more abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances. Vygotsky's theory - ☑️ A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. A child's development depends on social and cultural activities and social interactions with more skilled adults. Information-processing theory - ☑️ Individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Unlike Piaget's theory, but like Vygotsky's theory, This theory does not describe development as stage-like but as gradual increase capacity for processing information. Operant Conditioning Theory - ☑️ the theory that people learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur. Social Cognitive Theory - ☑️ The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development. Ecological Theory - ☑️ Bronfenbrenner's theory that human development is shaped by five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. Microsystem - ☑️ The setting in which the individual lives. These contexts include the person's family, peers, school, and neighborhood. Mesosystem - ☑️ connections between microsystems Ex. the relation of family experiences to school experiences Exosystem - ☑️ consists of social settings in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual's immediate context. Ex. A husband's experience at home may be influenced by a mother's experiences at work. Macrosystem - ☑️ The culture in which individuals live. Ethnology - ☑️ study of humankind; study of the different races of human beings; Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods.
How does Erikson's theory differ from Freud's? - ☑️ Freud's theory was sexual in nature, Erikson's focused on social and human interaction. Feud believed that our basic personaility was formed within the first five years of our life. Erikson believed change occurred throughout the lifespan. Trust vs. Mistrust occurs when? Looks like what? - ☑️ 0-1 Infant. A baby trusting that he will get feed. Trust is the foundation for everything that comes later on in life. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Age and description - ☑️ 1-3 toddlers I do it myself. A kid can dress himself indepedently Initiative vs guilt Age and description - ☑️ 3-5 preschool Taking the responsibility to help others. Industry vs. Inferiority Age and Description - ☑️ 6- 11/12 Elementary Make things, feel good about ability to make and do things. Comparing each other Identity vs. Confusion Age and description - ☑️ Adolescence trying to figure out who they are Intimacy vs isolation Age and Example - ☑️ 20-30 Early Adulthood Finding a partner and establishing a family. Generativity vs. Stagnation Age and Example - ☑️ 30-50 Middle adulthood Active want to do something of significance to leave a legacy (not about money) New hobby, mentoring ego intergrity vs despair Age and Example - ☑️ 60+ Late adulthood Not as active, reflect back on life.Give life meaning My life was full of regrets age of sensorimotor stage - ☑️ birth to 2 years age of preoperational stage - ☑️ 2-7 years
Phenotype - ☑️ the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. Down Syndrome - ☑️ Chromosomal abnormality a condition of intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. Individuals with Down syndrome have a round face, a flattened skull, an stra fold of skin over the eyelids, a protruding tongue, short limbs, and retardation of motor and mental abilities XYY syndrome - ☑️ Chromosomal abnormality A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra Y chromosome Fragile X syndrome - ☑️ Chromosomal abnormality A genetic disorder involving an abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and often breaks. More frequent in Males Sickle-cell anemia - ☑️ A genetic abnormality that impairs the functioning of the body's red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to the body's other cells and are usually disk-shaped. In sickle-cell anemia, a recessive gene causes the red blood cell to become a hook-shaped "sickle" that cannot carry oxygen properly and dies quickly. As a result, the body's cells do not receive adequate oxygen, causing anemia and early death. Diabetes - ☑️ Genetic abnormality Body does not produce enough insulin, which causes abnormal metabolism of sugar Spina Bifida - ☑️ Genetic abnormality Neural tube disorder that cause brain and spine abnormalities What is the goal of the filed of behavioral genetics? - ☑️ The field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development. They try and figure out what is responsible for the differences among people, to what extent people vary because of differences in genes, environment, or a combination of these factors How do the findings of adoption studies and twin studies help us to understand the role of heredity and environment? - ☑️ Some of these interactions are heredity-environment correlations, which means that individuals' genes may be systematically related to the types of environments to which they are exposed. In a sense, individuals "inherit," seek out, or "construct" environments that may be related or linked to genetic "propensities." passive genotype-environment correlations -
☑️ occur because biological parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child Example: the parents might have a genetic predisposition to be intelligent and read skillfully. Because they read well and enjoy reading, they provide their children with books to read. The likely outcome is that their children, because of both their own inherited predispositions and their book-filled environment, will become skilled readers. Evocative Genotype- environment correlation - ☑️ Occurs because a child's genetically influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments. For Example, active smiling children receive more social stimulation than passive, quiet children do. active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations - ☑️ Occurs when children seek out environments that they find compatible and stimulating. Niche-picking refers to finding a setting that is uited to one's genetically influenced abilities. Children select from their surrounding environment certain aspects that they respond to, learn about, or ignore. Their active selections of environments are related to their particular genotype. For Example, outgoing children tend to seek out social contexts in which to interact with people, whereas shy children don't. The Germinal Period - ☑️ first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining The embryonic period - ☑️ the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop. The fetal period - ☑️ the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child Teratogen - ☑️ Tera meaning monster. Any agent that causes a birth defect. Why do some infants exhibit effects of exposure to a teratogen while others do not (3 main factors that influence extent of impact)? - ☑️ Dose - The greater the dose of an agent, such as a drug, the greater the effect Genetic susceptibility- The type or severity of abnormalities caused by a teratogen is linked to the genotype of the pregnant woman and the genotype of the embryo or fetus. Time of exposure - Exposure to teratogens does more damage when it occurs at some points in development than at others. Damage during the germinal period may even prevent implantation. The embryonic period is more vulnerable than the fetal period Effects of nicotine on a dev eloping embryo - ☑️ Preterm briths Low birth weights fetal and neonatal deaths respiratory problems
something in their environment that motivates them to act and use their perceptions to fine tune their movements. Motor Skills represent solutions to the infant's goals Gross and Fine motor development at 3 months of age - ☑️ Gross: Lifting their head, sitting up with support Fine: Palmer grip Gross and fine motor development at 6 months - ☑️ Gross: Support some weight with legs. Roll over. Sit without support Fine: Reach for objects Gross and Fine motor development age 9 months - ☑️ Gross:Stand with support. Pull self to stand Fine: Pincher grip Gross and fine motor development at age 12 months - ☑️ Gross: Walking and standing independently. Fine:? How are sensation and perception related? - ☑️ Sensation is the receiving of information on a sensory receptor, like the ears, tongue, skin or nostrils. perception is the interpretation of that sense. What do infants prefer to look at? - ☑️ Patterns, like a face, piece of printed matter, or a bull's-eye. Saturated colors such as royal blue over pale blue. What do infants prefer to hear? - ☑️ Babies typically love what is familiar to them. Which includes mother's voice (typically higher pitched) and human faces. Schemes (Piaget) - ☑️ actions or mental representations that organize knowledge Accommodation (Piaget) - ☑️ adjustment of their schemes to take new information and experiences into account. Assimilation (Piaget) - ☑️ When children use their existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences Object permanence - ☑️ The Piagetian term for understanding that objects and events continue to exist, even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched. According to Piaget, from birth to age 24 months infants are _____ stage of development - ☑️ in the sensorimotor Order of the five communication behaviors of children - ☑️ Before birth -- Crying 2-4 months -- Cooing
6 months -- babbling 7- 14 months -- Use of gestures 18 months -- Spoken words What is the difference between a universal linguist and a language specific listener? - ☑️ Universal Linguist refers to crying, cooing, babbling, which all occur within the first six months of life. Infants are " citizens of the world" they recognize when sounds change most of the time, no matter what language the syllables come from. Language specific listeners occurs after six months, when the infant gets better at perceiving the changes in sounds from their own languages and they gradually lose the ability to recognize the differences that are not important to their own language. Temperament - ☑️ individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding What factors influence infant temperament - ☑️ Biological Foundations and experiences Gender, culture, and temperament Goodness of fit and parenting. Goodness of fit - ☑️ the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with What are typical infant behaviors that illustrate the trust versus mistrust stage of Erikson's theory - ☑️ Sense of self What are typical infant behaviors that illustrate the autonomy vs shame/doubt stage of Erikson's theory? - ☑️ Independence secure attachment pattern - ☑️ a style of attachment in which children use the mother as a kind of home base and are at ease when she is present; when she leaves, they become upset and go to her as soon as she returns insecure-avoidant attachment - ☑️ a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return insecure-resistant attachment - ☑️ classification of parent-child attachment in which the child shows little exploratory behavior when the parent is present, great distress when the parent leaves the room, and ambivalence upon the parent's return insecure-disorganized attachment - ☑️ a pattern of attachment in which an infant seems confused or apprehensive and shows contradictory behavior, such as moving toward the mother while looking away from her What role does culture play in infant-caregiver attachment? -
Animism - ☑️ The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action Centration - ☑️ A centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others Egocentrism - ☑️ The inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's perspective Conservation (Piaget - ☑️ The awareness that altering an object's or a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. Vygostky proposed that speech serves not only a communicative purpose but also.... - ☑️ serves to help them solve tasks Scaffolding - ☑️ Changing level of support over course of teaching session to fit child's current performance level Theory of mind - ☑️ Awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others Piaget's pre-operational period, what are some behaviors that would demonstrate that the child is in the symbolic function substage? - ☑️ The symbolic function sub-stage is the first sub-stage of pre-operational thought (age 2-
- During this sub-stage the young child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present. Young children use scribble designs to represent people, houses, cars, clouds, and so on. They begin to use language and engage in pretend play. What are some behaviors that would demonstrate the child is in the intuitive thought sub-stage? - ☑️ Intuitive thought (age 4-7) children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions. They will ask questions like "What makes you grow up?" "Why does the sun shine?" What impact does early (preschool) education have for children? - ☑️ Children learn social skills, problem solving skills, and they learn to practice all of those skills. During early childhood, children use their perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen. Erikson referred to this as .... failure to do so may result in experiencing ... - ☑️ Initiative Guilt Evolutionary View - ☑️ Biological dispositions Male and females evolved in such a way that benefited them. Males who had multiple sexual partners had a better change of having more off-spring. Females focused on having a mate that could provide their offspring with resources and protection.
Male evolved to be violent, competitive and risk takers. social role theory - ☑️ Social Experiences a theory that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of men and women psychoanalytic theory - ☑️ A theory developed by Freud Children first identify with opposite-sex parent and then same sex parent. Social cognitive theory - ☑️ Children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of what other people say and do, and through being rewarded and punished for gender-appropriate and gender- inappropriate behavior. authoritative parenting style - ☑️ -Encourages children to be independent but within limits of control, warm and nurturing, respect for a child's decision Ex. Parents are cheerful, self-controlled, and self- reliant, and achievement- oriented. Show pleasure and support to children'ts constructive behavior. authoritarian parenting - ☑️ A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children. Ex. You do it my way or else. Spanking children frequently, enforce rules but not explain them. Indulgent parenting style - ☑️ Parents are low on control, but high on acceptance. They have few rules and avoid controlling their children. Children never learn to control their own behavior. Ex. giving a child everything they want. Neglectful parenting style - ☑️ parent is uninvolved in a child's life. Feel that their life is more important than the child's. The children tend to be socially incompetent, truant and delinquent. Ex. A parent who never gives attention to their child. Physical abuse - ☑️ The infliction of physical injury as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, or otherwise harming a child. Child Neglect - ☑️ Failure to provide for the child's basic needs. Neglect can be physical, educational, or emotional. Sexual abuse - ☑️ when an adult uses a child or adolescent for sexual purposes. Fondling a child's genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials. Emotional abuse -
How are children in the concrete operational stage different from those in the pre-operation stage?
- ☑️ Concrete operations allow the child to consider several characteristics rather than focusing on a single property of an object. A child is presented with two identical balls of clay. one ball is turned into a long, thin shape; the other remains in its original ball shape. The child is then asked if there is more clay in the ball or in the long, thin piece of clay. In the clay example, the preoperational child is likely to focus on height or width. The concrete operational child coordinates information about both dimensions. What concept can concrete operational children understand that they could not previously? - ☑️ Concrete operations allow the child to consider several characteristics rather than focusing on a single property of an object. What other abilities are characteristic of children who have reached the concrete operational stage?
- ☑️ Classify or divide things into different sets or subsets and to consider their interrelationship. Ex. a family tree can be understood. Person J can be at the same time a father, brother, and grandson. How does information processing approach define short term memory? - ☑️ A passive storehouse with shelves to store information until it is moved to long-term memory How does the information processing approach define working memory? - ☑️ A kind of mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when they make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend written and spoken language. How does information processing approach define Long-term memory? - ☑️ A relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory, increases with age during middle and late childhood. Analytical intelligence - ☑️ ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast. "look different" in school. Students with high analytic ability tend to be favored in conventional schooling. They often do well under direct instruction, have good grades, do well on traditional tests of intelligence, and go to competitive colleges Creative intelligence - ☑️ consists of the ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine Children who are not at the top rung of their class. These students may not conform to teacher's specific instruction. They give unique answers Practical Intelligence (Sternberg) - ☑️ ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice Children in this category do not relate well to the demands of school, but do well on outside school activities. They have excellent social skills and good common sense. These students often become managers, politicians.
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences - ☑️ verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist What students high in verbal intelligence might like: - ☑️ Writing, speaking, word puzzles What students high in Mathematical intelligence might like: - ☑️ Math games, numbers, logic puzzles What students high in spatial intelligence might like: - ☑️ Maps, charts, drawing, sculpture What students high in body kinesthetic intelligence might like: - ☑️ Movement, dance, sports What students high in musical intelligence might like: - ☑️ Musical instruments, singing, listening to sounds What students high in interpersonal intelligence might like: - ☑️ Cooperative games, peer tutoring, interacting with others What students high in intrapersonal intelligence might like: - ☑️ self-reflection, journaling, setting goals What students high in naturalist intelligence might like: - ☑️ Outdoors, plants, bugs, environmental topics How is giftedness defined (measured)? - ☑️ Having above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something. What challenges might a gifted child face? - ☑️ Not enough programs in school to help expand their talents These children may be socially isolated or unchallenged How is a learning disability defined? - ☑️ A child with a learning disability has difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, and spelling. A learning disability also may involve difficulty in doing mathematics. To be classified as a learning disability, the learning problem is not primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; mental retardation; emotional disorders; or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. -Dyslexia - is a category reserved for individuals who have a severe impairment in their ability to read and spell. -Dysgraphia - is a learning disability that involves difficulty in handwritin. Children with dysgraphia may write very slowly, their writing products may be virtually illegible, and they may make numerous spelling errors because of their inability to match up sounds and letters. -Dyscalculia - also known as developmental arithmetic disorder, is a learning disability that involves difficulty in math computation
example, adolescents may reason that in order for a community to work effectively, it needs to be protected by laws that are adhered to by its members. Kohlberg's theory of moral development Stages 5 and 6 - ☑️ Postconventional reasoning: third and highest level. At this level, morality is more internal. Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights is the fifth Kohlberg stage. At this stage, individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law. A person evaluates the validity of actual laws and examines social systems in terms of the degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and values. Stage 6. Universal ethical principles is the sixth and highest stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, the person has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. When faced with a conflict between law and conscience, the person will follow conscience, even though the decision might involve personal risk. How do children's ability to cope with stress and express emotion change? - ☑️ They are more able to accurately appraise a stressful situation and determine how much control they have over it. older children are better at shifting attention away from stressful situations or understanding another's perspective. How does the parent-child relationship change as a children move into middle and later childhood?
- ☑️ Parents spend less time with their children in middle and later childhood. Children are able to self regulate their moment to moment activities. Attachment is still a large part of development in children. constructivist approach to education - ☑️ A learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher. Teachers should encourage children to explore their world and work with their peers. fixed versus growth mindset - ☑️ Fixed mindset: They believe their qualities are carved in stone and cannot change Growth mindset: They believe their qualities can change and improve through their effort. Description of puberty in boys - ☑️ Growth of penis and testes, height spurt ( 4 inches) Weight increase surpassing girls growth of pubic hair, armpit, and facial hair, first ejaculation voice change. Puberty in boys occurs at age... - ☑️ May begin as early as 10- 13 1/ End 13- puberty in girls - ☑️ widening and roundness of hips,
breast development, menstruation Pubic and armpit hairs increase in weight Growth spurt ( 3 1/2 inches) Age of puberty in girls - ☑️ 9-15 first period 8-9 years begin puberty What are the main hormones associated with puberty for girls? - ☑️ Estradiol, a type of estrogen What are the main hormones associated with puberty for boys? - ☑️ Testosterone What are some health-risk behavioral issues that show an increase in adolescence? - ☑️ Not getting enough exercise and sleep poor nutrition choices and obesity What factors contribute to these behaviors or disorders in adolescence? - ☑️ Alcohol Screen time Early school hours What are the major characteristics of formal operational thought? - ☑️ Abstract then concrete operational thought (make believe situations, hypothetical events) Adolescents can solve problems that are verbally presented Thinking about thought itself Thinking ideally about possibilities Tend to think logically, they develop hypothesis and how they will test those hypothesis What are some criticisms of Piaget's concept of formal operations? - ☑️ There is much more individual variation. only 1 in 3 young adolescent is a formal operational thinker. Culture and education influences children to think logically Some cognitive developmentalist agree that cognitive development is not stage-like as Piaget thought. personal fable (Elkind) - ☑️ Adolescent egocentrisim View him/herself as somehow unique. adolescents might craft a story about the self that is filled with fantasy. no one can understand how they feel imaginary audience (Elkind) - ☑️ adolescents' belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are, as well as attention-getting behavior— attempts to be noticed, visible, and "on stage.
