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Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
Chapter 1 Individuals & Variables Statistics - correct answers ✅study of the collection, organization, and interpretation of data Descriptive statistics - correct answers ✅involves methods of organizing, picturing, and summarizing information from data (results cannot be generalized to any larger group) Inferential Statistics - correct answers ✅involves methods of using information from a sample to draw conclusions about the population (results can be generalized to any larger group) individuals - correct answers ✅objects described by a set of a data variable - correct answers ✅characteristic of an individual
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
Example: studying the people who have claimed to the top of Mt. Everest - correct answers ✅individuals in the study: people who climbed to top of Mt. Everest variables to observe: height, weight, age, gender Types of Variables - correct answers ✅ Categorical/Qualitative - correct answers ✅non numeric-eye color, gender, SSN, area code Quantitative - correct answers ✅numeric data-height, weight, age, # of siblings Observational Studies - correct answers ✅ observational study - correct answers ✅study in which a researcher simply observes behavior in a systematic manner without influencing or interfering with behavior (don't attempt to influence responses, passive data collection) doing it yourself
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
Census - correct answers ✅sample survey that attempts to include the entire population in its sample Experiment - correct answers ✅deliberately imposes some treatment on individuals in order to observe a response (influence responses, active data production, purpose is to study whether the treatment CAUSES a change in the response) try to make groups alike so only difference is treatment CAUTION: statistical conclusions hold "on average" for groups of individuals, but they don't tell us much about an individual - correct answers ✅ Chapter 2 - correct answers ✅ How to Sample Badly - correct answers ✅ sampling design - correct answers ✅way in which we select a sample from a population
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
sampling bias sample - correct answers ✅statistical sample of a population in which some members of the population are less likely to be included than others Convenience Sampling - correct answers ✅sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand Voluntary Response - correct answers ✅samples choose themselves by responding to general appeal (asks the people) biased sample - correct answers ✅if it systematically excludes certain segments of the population or if it systematically favors certain outcomes (relative to the purpose of the sample) Simple Random Samples - correct answers ✅ simple random sample - correct answers ✅size n consists of n individuals chosen in such a way that every set of n individuals has an equal chance of being chosen
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
Symbols for proportions - correct answers ✅p= population proportion, p hat= sample proportion Calculating sample proportion - correct answers ✅p hat= number of individuals in the sample that have characteristics your looking for / the sample size Sampling Variability - correct answers ✅ random sampling advantages - correct answers ✅eliminates favoritism, attacks bias, bigger samples are less variable that the results of smaller samples Clicker Question - correct answers ✅as sample size increases, the probability of being closer to the true parameter (population) value increases Two types of error - correct answers ✅bias and variability (how spread out the values of the sample statistics are)
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
to reduce bias - correct answers ✅use random sampling to reduce variability of a simple random sample - correct answers ✅use a larger sample Margin of Error and All That - correct answers ✅plus or minus percentage points we put around our proportion estimate Usually pollsters use what percent confidence interval - correct answers ✅95% Quick and Dirty method for finding MoE at 95% - correct answers ✅MoE= 1/square root of n; n= sample size Larger sample means you will have a _ MoE - correct answers ✅smaller Confidence Statements - correct answers ✅
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
Sampling Errors - correct answers ✅errors caused by the act of taking a sample (cause sample results to be different from the results of a census) Ramdon Sampling Error - correct answers ✅is the deviation between the sample statistic and the population parameter caused by chance in selecting a random sample Sampling Errors - correct answers ✅ Under coverage - correct answers ✅occurs when some groups in a population are left out of the sampling process sampling frame - correct answers ✅is a list of all individuals in the population from which a sample is drawn Non-Sampling Errors - correct answers ✅ non sampling errors - correct answers ✅errors not related to the act of selecting a sample from a population
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
processing errors - correct answers ✅errors are mistakes in mechanical tasks such as entering into computer response errors - correct answers ✅errors occur when subject gives an incorrect response non-response error - correct answers ✅failure to obtain data from an individual selected for a sample (most serious) Sample Designs in the Real World - correct answers ✅ Strata - correct answers ✅divide sampling frame into groups of individuals take SRS in each stratum group of individuals based on some similarity proportional allocation - correct answers ✅procedure for dividing a sample among the strata in a stratified sample survey
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
response variable - correct answers ✅variable that measures an outcome or result of a study explanatory variable - correct answers ✅variable that we think explains or causes changes in the response variable subjects - correct answers ✅individuals studied in the experiment treatment - correct answers ✅any specific experimental condition applied to the subjects cofounding/ lurking variable - correct answers ✅variable that has an important effect on the relationship between explanatory and response variables, but is not one of the explanatory variables being studied reduce cofounding variables affecting experimental results - correct answers ✅randomly placing subjects into groups, randomly assigning treatments to groups, use stratified sampling and compare groups
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
Simpsons paradox - correct answers ✅apparent paradox in which a trend present in different groups is reversed when the groups are combined clinical trials - correct answers ✅studies involving the effectiveness of medical treatments on actual patients (can be experimental or observational) Phase 1 - correct answers ✅test the side effects of increasing dosage Phase 2 - correct answers ✅evaluate the effectiveness Phase 3 - correct answers ✅compare it to commonly used treatments Phase 4 - correct answers ✅after the FDA approved the treatment is on the market Placebo - correct answers ✅dummy treatment with no active ingredients
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
Logic of experimental design - correct answers ✅ randomized comparative experiment is designed to allow us to draw caused and effect conclusions - correct answers ✅ randomization - correct answers ✅produces groups of subjects that should be similar in all respects before we apply the treatments comparative design - correct answers ✅ensures that influences other than the experimental operate equally on all groups therefore, differences in the response variable must be due to the effects of the TREATMENTS - correct answers ✅ Basic Principles of Statistical design of experiments are - correct answers ✅- compare 2 or more treatments to control the effects of lurking variable on the response -randomize
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
-use enough subjects in each group to reduce chance variation in results Statistical Significance - correct answers ✅ statistically significant - correct answers ✅The likelihood that a result or relationship is caused by something other than mere random chance. Chapter 6: Experiments in the Real World - correct answers ✅ refusal - correct answers ✅to participate is a serious problem for medical experiments on treatments for major diseases such as cancer (bias can result if those who refuse are different from those who cooperate) Non-adherers - correct answers ✅subjects who participate but don't follow the experimental treatment dropouts - correct answers ✅subjects who begin the experiment but do not complete it
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
Declaration of Geneva - correct answers ✅declaration of physicians dedication of the humanitarian goals of medicine, a declaration that was especially important in view of the medical crimes which had just been committed to Nazi Germany Declaration of Helsinki - correct answers ✅is a statement of ethical principles to provide guidance to physicians and other participants in biomedical research involving human subjects (subjects welfare must always take precedence over the interest of science and society Basic Data Ethics - correct answers ✅ the organization that carries out the study must have an institutional review board that reviews all planned studies in advance in order to protect the subjects from possible harm - correct answers ✅ all individuals who are subjects in a study must give their informed consent before data are collected - correct answers ✅
Answers (Latest Update 2024/25)
all individual data must be kept confidential - correct answers ✅ For an individual to give valid consent there must be - correct answers ✅disclosure, capacity, and voluntariness disclosure - correct answers ✅requires the researcher to supply the subject with the information necessary to make decision capacity - correct answers ✅pertains to the ability of the subject to understand the information voluntariness - correct answers ✅subjects right to freely exercise their decision anonymity - correct answers ✅means that subjects are anonymous- their names are not known even to the director of the study Chapter 8: Measuring - correct answers ✅
