Introduction to Microprocessors: Architecture, Instruction Set, and Assembly Language, Lecture notes of Introduction to Computers

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Lecture

Introduction to Microprocessors

By

Dr. Mohammed Y.M Alnaham

A microprocessor

• (^) A microprocessor is a central processing unit

(CPU) implemented on a single integrated

circuit (IC) chip.

• (^) It is the essential component of a computer

that performs arithmetic and logical

operations, controls the computer's operation,

and manages the flow of information to and

from other components of the computer

system.

• (^) 4. Performance: Microprocessor performance is

measured in terms of clock speed (frequency),

number of cores, and other architectural features

that enable faster processing of instructions.

• (^) 5. Power efficiency: Advances in microprocessor

design and manufacturing have led to

increasingly power-efficient microprocessors,

making them suitable for use in portable and

battery-powered devices.

• (^) Microprocessors are the backbone of

modern computing and are found in

a wide range of devices, including

personal computers, smartphones,

tablets, servers, gaming consoles,

and a vast array of embedded

systems like industrial machinery,

household appliances, and

automotive electronics.

Primary registers of a microprocessor in Von

Neumann architecture

• (^) 1. Program Counter (PC): The program counter

stores the memory address of the next

instruction to be fetched and executed. It is used

to keep track of the current position in the

program.

• (^) 2. Accumulator (ACC): The accumulator is a

central register that holds the results of

arithmetic and logic operations. It is used to store

intermediate results during computational tasks.

• (^) 3. Memory Address Register (MAR): The memory

address register holds the memory address from

which data is to be read or to which data is to be

written.

• (^) 4. Memory Data Register (MDR): The memory data

register holds the data that is to be written to or

read from memory.

Instruction Set

The instruction set of a microprocessor refers to the

collection of machine-level instructions that the

processor can execute.

• (^) 1. Instruction Format:



• Opcode: Specifies the operation to be performed

(e.g., add, subtract, load, store)



• Operands: Specifies the data or addresses involved in

the operation



• Addressing Modes: Specify how the operands are

accessed (e.g., immediate, direct, indirect)

Instruction Set

• (^) 2. Instruction Types:



• Data Transfer Instructions: Load, store, move data

between registers, memory, and I/O



• Arithmetic and Logical Instructions: Add, subtract,

multiply, divide, logical operations (AND, OR, XOR, NOT)



• Control Transfer Instructions: Conditional and

unconditional jumps, calls, returns



• Comparison Instructions: Compare values and set

flags - Interrupt Instructions: Enable, disable, and

handle interrupts

Instruction Set

• (^) 4. Addressing Modes:



• Immediate: The operand is a constant value

specified in the instruction



• Direct: The operand is located at a specific

memory address



• Indirect: The operand's address is stored in a

register



• Indexed: The operand's address is calculated by

adding an index value to a base address

Instruction Set

• (^) 5. Microarchitecture:



• Pipelining: Allows multiple instructions to be

executed concurrently, improving performance



• Superscalar: Allows multiple instructions to be

executed in parallel, further improving

performance



• RISC vs. CISC: Reduced Instruction Set

Computer (RISC) vs. Complex Instruction Set

Computer (CISC) architectures

Memory addressing modes

• (^) 3. Indirect Addressing:

• The operand's memory address is stored in

a register. - Example: MOV AX, [BX]

• (^) 4. Indexed Addressing:

• The operand's memory address is calculated

by adding an index value (in a register) to a

base address. - Example: MOV AX, [BX + SI]

Memory addressing modes

• (^) 5. Base-Indexed with Displacement Addressing:



• The operand's memory address is calculated by

adding a base register, an index register, and a

constant displacement value. - Example: MOV AX, [BX

• SI + 0x10]

• (^) 6. Relative Addressing:



• The operand's memory address is calculated by

adding a signed offset to the current instruction's

address (program counter). - Example: JMP [PC +

0x100].

ALU

The main functions of an ALU include:

• (^) 1. Arithmetic Operations:

• Addition

• Subtraction

• Multiplication

• Division

ALU

• (^) 2. Logical Operations:

- AND

- OR

- NOT

- XOR

• Shift operations (left/right shift)