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Psy 200 Exam 2 Study Guide Questions with
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What is memory --- correct answer --- The ability of our mind to store & remember information
What is encoding? --- correct answer --- Encoding is how our brain breaks down information into something we can understand as well as putting it in terms we can store in our brains.
What is storage? --- correct answer --- Storage is placing newly acquired information into memory which is then later modified
What is retrieval? --- correct answer --- the process of getting information out of memory storage
Explain the study by Craik & Tulving (1975) --- correct answer --- Researchers presented participants with a series of words and asked them to make one of three types of judgements
a) Semantic judgement - required the participants to think about the meaning of the word.
b) Rhyme judgements - required the participants to think about the sound of the word.
c) Visual judgements - required the participant to think about the appearance of the word.
The type of judgement task had a powerful impact on their memories. The participants who made semantic judgements had much better memory for the words than did participants who had thought about how the word looked or sounded.
The results of this has shown that long-term retention is greatly enhanced by elaborative encoding
What is visual imagery encoding? --- correct answer --- storing new information by converting it into mental pictures
What area of the brain is active during semantic encoding? --- correct answer --- Frontal lobe
What area of the brain is active during visual encoding? --- correct answer --
- Occipital lobe
What is organizational encoding? --- correct answer --- the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items
What is semantic encoding? --- correct answer --- the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
What is the sensory memory store? --- correct answer --- A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.
What is iconic memory? --- correct answer --- a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
instead of seeing 1235557890, we'd organize it as 123-555-
What is working memory & how does it show the active nature of this type of memory? --- correct answer --- What you're thinking of in that exact moment (short term memory)
Your mind is constantly thinking of different things so your short term memory is constantly changing with what it was focusing on.
What is long-term memory? --- correct answer --- the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
What is capacity? --- correct answer --- The amount of information that can be held in a memory store
What is anterograde amnesia? --- correct answer --- inability to form new memories
What is retrograde amnesia? --- correct answer --- Inability to remember events that occurred before the incidence of trauma or the onset of the disease that caused the amnesia
What part of the brain seems to be important in moving information to the long-term memory store (and is damaged in anterograde amnesia)? --- correct answer --- Hippocampus
What is consolidation? --- correct answer --- process that maintains, strengthens, and modifies memories that are already in long-term memory
What is reconsolidation? --- correct answer --- the action of reactivating existing memories from the past
Researchers believe that the connections between neurons might be the basis for long-term memory. What physical changes seem to result from
learning? --- correct answer --- New neural pathways are formed in the brain between neurons as we learn new material
What is long-term potentiation? --- correct answer --- increase in synaptic plasticity/strength of synapse. key component of learning.
What are retrieval cues? --- correct answer --- external information that helps bring stored information to mind like a familiar smell or sound
What is the encoding specificity principle? --- correct answer --- recall is better if the retrieval context is similar to the encoding context
example: chewing a piece of gum while studying, then chewing the same piece of gum during the exam
What is state-dependent retrieval? --- correct answer --- The state you're in such as being happy or sad, while determine which memories etc are more easily retrieved. Your state of consciousness being the same.
Example if you're depressed you find it easier to recall sad memories/knowledge than if you were happy.
How does retrieval improve memory? --- correct answer --- By practicing retrieval, it can help our brain adapt to remember more and allow us to store more information for long-term.
What are the different forms of memory? --- correct answer --- sensory (very small periods of times)
short-term (lasts around 30 seconds unless you have repetition)
age of time needed to relearn the list and compared with the time needed to learn it initially. He came up with the forgetting curve.
What is the forgetting curve? --- correct answer --- Forgetting is a steep curve at first and then it levels off and decreases more slowly
What is the difference between retroactive interference and proactive interference? --- correct answer --- Proactive interference occurs when past memories hold back an individual from retaining new memories i.e. forgetting a new phone number because you keep recalling your old one
Retroactive interference occurs when new memories hold back an individual from retaining old memories. i.e. calling your ex boyfriend by your new boyfriend's name
What is absentmindedness? --- correct answer --- the inattentive or shallow encoding of events; lack of attention
What is prospective memory? --- correct answer --- remembering to do something in the future
What is blocking? --- correct answer --- Sudden interruption in train of thought, unable to complete sentence
What is memory misattribution? --- correct answer --- assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source
What is source memory? --- correct answer --- recall of when, where, and how information was acquired
Why might false recollection occur? --- correct answer --- It happened so long ago we can recall specific details, we were influenced by others, we altered the memory at some point and it became the new truth in our minds, etc.
Should witnesses view suspects in a lineup all at once or one-at-a time? --- correct answer --- In a lineup
What is suggestibility? --- correct answer --- the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections
Explain the studies done by Loftus --- correct answer --- He wondered that if misleading details can be implanted in people's memories, is it also possible to suggest entire episodes that never occurred? In which he got the answer that yes it could, by having an older brother, Jim, ask his teenage brother Chris, if he remembered the time he got lost in a mall. At the time he din't, but after several days he could remember the events in detail, even though this event had never happened.
What evidence exists that recovered memories can sometimes be inaccurate? --- correct answer --- Our minds are very suggestible and very easily to plant false memories in them
This is why witness testimony can be so difficult
What is bias? --- correct answer --- A particular preference or point of view that is personal, rather than scientific.
What is persistence? --- correct answer --- the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget
What are flashbulb memories? --- correct answer --- Vivid, detailed memories of an important event.
What is a conditioned stimulus? --- correct answer --- a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response i.e. the rabbit being given to Albert with a loud bang
What is the unconditioned response? --- correct answer --- an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning i.e. Albert wanting to play with the object
What is a conditioned response? --- correct answer --- a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus i.e. Albert crying when given a harmless object
What is acquisition? --- correct answer --- the phase of classical conditioning when the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented together
What is extinction? --- correct answer --- the diminishing of a conditioned response
How does extinction occur in classical conditioning? --- correct answer --- When the original stimulus that triggered the behavior, doesn't elicit the same response, it eventually dies out and is forgotten/extinct
What is spontaneous recovery? --- correct answer --- the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
What is generalization? --- correct answer --- the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
What is discrimination in classical conditioning? --- correct answer --- the opposite of generalization. An organism learns to distinguish between two stimuli
The Rescorla-Wagner predicts that classical conditioning would be easier when the CS was what? --- correct answer --- When it was an unfamiliar event
What is biological preparedness? --- correct answer --- the idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses
What is the Rescorla-Wagner model? --- correct answer --- a cognitive model of classical conditioning; it holds that the strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the unconditioned stimulus is unexpected
How did Garcia and others (1966) show that things that are evolutionarily adaptive might be more easily conditioned? --- correct answer --- used a variety of CS's (visual, auditory, tactile taste, and smell) and several different US's (injection, radiation, etc.) that caused nausea and vomiting hours later, found that conditioning occurred only when the CS had a distinct taste or smell
What is operant conditioning? --- correct answer --- a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
How is operant conditioning different from classical conditioning? --- correct answer - -- classical conditioning relies more on association between stimuli and responses whereas operant is based on voluntary responses
Which pairs a response with a consequence? Operant or Classical? --- correct answer --- Operant
Which pairs two stimuli? Operant or Classical --- correct answer --- Classical
For example, a dog being able to distinguish between the commands for sit or stay
How does extinction occur in operant conditioning? --- correct answer --- extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced following a discriminative stimulus
What is fixed interval reinforcement? --- correct answer --- Presented after a designated amount of time
i.e. The response rate (ex. studying) increases toward the end of each interval
What is a variable interval? --- correct answer --- reward given after varying amounts of time
What is a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement? --- correct answer --- schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same
What is a variable ratio schedule? --- correct answer --- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
What is continuous reinforcement? --- correct answer --- reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs (this is still a type of schedule of reinforcement)
What is intermittent reinforcement? --- correct answer --- when only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement
What type of schedule does gambling operate under?
a) fixed ratio
b) variable ratio
c) fixed interval
d) variable interval
e) continuous reinforcement
f) intermittent reinforcement --- correct answer --- Variable-ratio
What type of schedule would be: a toddler being potty-trained receives a piece of candy anytime he uses his potty.
a) fixed ratio
b) variable ratio
c) fixed interval
d) variable interval
e) continuous reinforcement
f) intermittent reinforcement --- correct answer --- Continuous reinforcement
What type of schedule reinforcement would be a reward being given every 3 times the desire action is performed?
a) fixed ratio
b) variable ratio
c) fixed interval
d) variable interval
e) continuous reinforcement
f) intermittent reinforcement --- correct answer --- fixed ratio
f) intermittent reinforcement --- correct answer --- Intermittent
What schedule of reinforcement leads to the highest rate of responding? --- correct answer --- Variable ratio
What is the intermittent reinforcement effect? --- correct answer --- the fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement
what is shaping in operant conditioning? --- correct answer --- rewarding increasingly specific behaviors
How can shaping be used to teach a new behavior? --- correct answer --- By reinforcing successful behaviors to try and teach the desired behavior
What is latent learning? --- correct answer --- learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
i.e. a child might learn how to complete a math problem in class, but this learning is not immediately obvious
What is a cognitive map? --- correct answer --- mental representation of one's environment
Explain the studies by Tolman & Honzik (1930) & how they challenged the notion that there was not a cognitive component to learning --- correct answer --- Rats in a control group that never received any reinforcement improved at finding their way through the maze over 17 days but not by much.
Rats that received regular reinforcement showed fairly clear learning; their error rate decreased steadily over time.
Rats in the latent learning group were treated exactly like the control group rats for the first 10 days and then like the regularly rewarded group for the last 7 days.
Their dramatic improvement on day 12 shows that these rats had learned a lot about the maze and the location of the goal box even though they had never received reinforcements. Also on the last 7 days, these latent learners actually seem to make fewer errors than their regularly rewarded counterparts.
What are the brain's pleasure centers? --- correct answer --- Limbic system, medial forebrain bundles, & the reward pathway between the hypothalamus & the nucleus acumbens
How did the Brelands find that operant conditioning is constrained by evolution? --- correct answer --- By training with pigs and raccoons they found that each species, including humans, is biologically predisposed to learn some things more readily than others and to respond to stimuli in ways that are consistent with its evolutionary history.
What is observational learning? --- correct answer --- learning by observing others
Describe bandura's bobo doll study --- correct answer --- Researches lead individual preschoolers to a room filled with toys 4-year-olds would like. An [adult model], someone whose behavior might serve as a guide for others, then entered the room and started playing with the Bobo doll. The adult played quietly for a moment but then started playing aggressively toward the doll. When the children who observed these actions were later allowed to play with a variety of toys, including the Bobo doll, they were more than twice as likely to interact with it in an aggressive manner.
Keyword mnemonic
Imagery for text
rereading
What are the two dimensions of emotion? --- correct answer --- arousal and valence
What is the James-Lange theory of emotion? --- correct answer --- a stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labeled
i.e. you see a bear. Your heart rate picks up and then your brain says you're scared
What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion? --- correct answer --- physiological arousal and feeling of emotion occur at the same time. Hence, removing afferent neurons will not affect the emotion.
i.e. you see a bear and your heart rate increases at the same time fear is registered in your brain
What is Schacter/Singer theory of emotion? --- correct answer --- Physiological Response must be cognitively interpreted and labelled to then be felt as an emotion
i.e. you see a bear and your heart rate increases. This physiological response is registered in the brain and is then seen as being fear/adrenaline.
How would all the theories of emotion explain how arousal and emotion are related? --- correct answer --- They all incorporate a physiological response as being how we register emotional responses
What division of the nervous system is involved with arousal? --- correct answer --- The autonomic nervous system - it directs the adrenal glands to release epinephrines (stress hormones - this is your adrenaline)
What is the best level of arousal for performance?
How does this change with the difficulty of the task? --- correct answer --- moderately aroused (alert but not trembling with nervousness)
Lower levels for difficult tasks & higher levels for easier/well learned tasks
What is the polygraph? --- correct answer --- Machine that measures the several autonomic responses. It is said that it measures changes that are specific to lying.
What does a polygraph measure? --- correct answer --- arousal of the sympathetic nervous system
How is a polygraph used to try to detect lying? --- correct answer --- The idea is that when we're lying, our nervous system will be more active hence the little needle will go crazy rather than when we tell the truth where we should be calm & the needle should be relatively chill
What are some of the problems with the polygraph? --- correct answer --- some people can go in really nervous about the test and their readings will show them as lying even if they're not. It's not a reliable test at all. Plus there's also people that can be lying completely, but pass the test - like a sociopath.
What is the guilty knowledge test? --- correct answer --- A test that assesses a suspect's knowledge of details of a crime that only the guilty person would know.
