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HUMAN

MEMORY

Memory

Memory refers to retaining and recalling information

over a period of time, depending upon the nature of

cognitive task you are required to perform.

Memory is conceptualised as a process consisting of

three independent, though interrelated stages.

These are ENCODING, STORAGE & RETRIEVAL. Any

information received by us necessarily goes through

these stages.

Nature of Memory

1. ENCODING

Is the first stage which refers to a process by which information is

recorded and

registered for the first time so that it becomes usable by our

memory system.

Whenever an external stimulus impinges on our sensory organs,

it generates neural impulses. These are received in different

areas of our brain for further processing.

In encoding, incoming information is received and some meaning

is derived.

It is then represented in a way so that it can be processed further.

2. STORAGE

is the second stage of memory.

Information which was encoded must also be stored so that it can be

put to use later.

Storage, therefore, refers to the process through which information is

retained and held over a period of time.

3. RETRIEVAL

is the third stage of memory.

Information can be used only when one is able to recover it from her/his

memory.

Retrieval refers to bringing the stored information to her/his awareness

so that it can be used for performing various cognitive tasks such as

problem solving or decision-making.

Storage is the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are as

shown below

Information Processing

Model

dm

Sensory

Memory

It is the shortest term element of Memory. The incoming

information first enters the sensory memory. Sensory memory

has a large capacity.

However, it is of very short duration, i.e. less than a second.

It is a memory system that registers information from each of

the senses with reasonable accuracy.

Often this system is referred to as sensory memories or

sensory registers because information from all the senses are

registered here as exact replica of the stimulus.

If you have experienced visual after-images (the trail of light

that stays after the bulb is switched off) or when you hear

reverberations of a sound when the sound has ceased, then you

are familiar with iconic (visual) or echoic (auditory) sensory

registers.

Long term memory

It is the ability to store more information for long period

of time like phone number, names and address from when

we were kids

Materials that survive the capacity and duration limitations

of the STM finally enter the long-term memory which has a

vast capacity.

It is a permanent storehouse of all information that may

be as recent as what you ate for breakfast today or of a

distant past.

It has been shown that once any information enters the

long-term memory store it is never forgotten because it

gets encoded semantically, i.e. in terms of the meaning

that any information carries.

Forgetting is retrieval failure; for various reasons you

cannot retrieve the stored information.

Ways to Transfer Information

(flow of information)

pisodic memory

epresents our memory of experienc

specific events in time in a serial f

ch we can reconstruct the actual ev

ersonal experiences linked with spe

Times and places



Serial memory of events

emantic memory

n the other hand, is a more structu

ecord of fact , meaning , concept an

wledge about the external world t

Can be described and applied

personal fact and everyday knowle

ructured memory of fact ,concept,s

LEVELS OF PROCESSING

The levels of processing view was proposed by Craik and

Lockhart in 1972.

This view suggests that the processing of any new

information relates to the manner in which it is perceived,

analysed, and understood which in turn determines the

extent to which it will eventually be retained.

Analysing information in terms of its structural and phonetic

features amounts to shallower processing.

Encoding in terms of the meaning it carries (the semantic

encoding) is the deepest processing level that leads to

memory that resists forgetting considerably.

Examples…..fish, dog, ball etc..

MEMORY AS A CONSTRUCTIVE

PROCESS

• Bartlett contended that memory is an active process and all that we have

stored undergoes continuous change and modification.

• What we memorise is influenced by the meaning we assign to the stimulus

material and once it is committed to our memory system, it cannot

remain in isolation from other cognitive processes.

• Bartlett attempted to understand the manner in which content of any

specific memory gets affected by a person’s knowledge, goals, motivation,

preferences and various other psychological processes.

• His participants altered the texts to make them more consistent with their

knowledge, glossed over the unnecessary details, elaborated the main

theme and transformed the material to look more coherent and rational.

• Schema, which according to him ‘was an active organisation of past

reactions and past experiences’.

Key theories of

forgetting



Decay



Interference



Motivated forgetting



Encoding Failure



Retrieval Failure

FORGETTING

The first systematic attempt to understand the

nature of forgetting was made by Hermann

Ebbinghaus.

He memorised lists of nonsense syllables and then

measured the number of trials he took to relearn the

same list at varying time intervals. He observed that

the course of forgetting follows a certain pattern.

The rate of forgetting is maximum in the first nine

hours, particularly during the first hour.

After that the rate slows down and not much is