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They contain a Processor - called different names ... Integration technology; the entire circuit is on a single chip.
Typology: Exams
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¨ Personal computers
¨ Mainframes
¨ Supercomputers
¨ Dedicated controllers – Embedded controllers
Mainframes
n Massive amounts of memory
n Use large data words…64 bits or greater
n Mostly used for military defense and large
business data processing
n Examples: IBM 4381, Honeywell DPS
Personal Computers
n Any general-purpose computer
¨ intended to be operated
¨ directly by an end user
¨ Microprocessor – built using Very-Large-Scale
Integration technology; the entire circuit is on a
single chip
¨ Central Processing Unit (CPU)
¨ Microprocessor Unit (MPU) – similar to CPU
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer
A little about
Microprocessor-based
Systems ……
Evolution
Microprocessor-Based Systems
Arithmetic
Logic
Unit
Register
Arrays
Control Unit
CLK Reg
Microprocessor-based System
Evolution of CPUs
Transistors
Integrated Circuits
Microprocessors
Evolution of CPUs
n Intel® Core™ i
¨ Intel® Core™ i7-5960X Processor Extreme
Edition
¨ (20M Cache, up to 3.50 GHz)
¨ 8 Cores, 16 Threads
¨ 64 bit Instruction Set
http://www.intel.com/technology/architecture-silicon/2billion.htm
Microprocessor-based Systems
Memory Types
¨ R/W: Read/Write Memory; also called RAM
Microprocessor-based Systems
Memory Classification
Expensive
Fast/
Cheap
Slow
Onetime programmable
Electronically Erasable
Basic Technologies:
Semiconductor
Magnetic
Optical
(or combination)
Microprocessor-based Systems
Memory Classification
Expensive
Fast/
Cheap
Slow
Onetime programmable
Electronically Erasable
save a single bit
expensive
capacitor to store a bit
requires refreshing
program storage
Microprocessor-based
Systems - BUS
n The three components – MPU, memory, and I/O – are connected by a
group of wires called the BUS
n Address bus
n consists of 16, 20, 24, or 32 parallel signal lines (wires) - unidirectional
n these lines contain the address of the memory location to read or written
n Control bus
¨ consists of 4 to 10 (or more) parallel signal lines
¨ CPU sends signals along these lines to memory and to I/O ports
n examples: Memory Read, Memory Write, I/O Read, I/O Write
n Data bus
¨ consists of 8,16, or 32 parallel signal lines
¨ bi-directional
¨ only one device at a time can have its outputs enabled,
¨ this requires the devices to have three-state output
Expanded Microprocessor-Based System
1. Note the directions
of busses
2. What is the width of
the address bus?
3. What is the value of
the Address but to
access the first
register of the R/
Remember: 111 1111 1111 = 2^11=2K
So what are
microcontrollers?
First Microcontrollers
n IBM started using Intel processors in its PC
¨ Intel started its 8042 and 8048 (8-bit
microcontroller) – using in printers
n Apple Macintosh used Motorola 68000
n 1980 Intel abandoned microcontroller business
n By 1989 Microchip was a major player in
designing microcontrollers
¨ PIC: Peripheral Interface Controller
MCU Architecture
n RISC (Harvard)
¨ Reduced instruction set computer
¨ Simple operations
¨ Simple addressing modes
¨ Longer compiled program bust faster to
execute
¨ Uses pipelining
n CISC (Von Neuman)
¨ Complex instruction set computer
¨ More complex instructions (closer to high-
level language support)
Bench marks: How to compare MCUs together
MIPS: Million Instructions / second (Useful when the compilers are the same)
Main 8-bit Controllers
¨ RISC architecture (reduced instruction set computer)
¨ Has sold over 2 billion as of 2002
¨ Cost effective and rich in peripherals
¨ CISC architecture
¨ Has hundreds of instructions
¨ Examples: 68HC05, 68HC08, 68HC
¨ CISC architecture
¨ Has hundreds of instructions
¨ Examples: 8051, 8052
¨ Many difference manufacturers: Philips, Dallas/MAXIM Semiconductor,
etc.
¨ RISC architecture (reduced instruction set computer) –
¨ Cost effective and rich in peripherals
n Machine Language: binary instructions
¨ All programs are converted into the machine
language of a processor for execution
¨ Difficult to decipher and write
¨ Prone to cause many errors in writing
Machine Language
Assembly Language
High-level Language
Software: From Machine
to High-Level Languages (1 of 3)
Software: From Machine
to High-Level Languages (2 of 3)
n Assembly Language: machine instructions
represented in mnemonics
¨ Has one-to-one correspondence with machine
instructions
¨ Efficient in execution and use of memory;
machine-specific and not easy to troubleshoot
Machine Language
Assembly Language
High-level Language
Data Format (8-bit) (2 of 4)
n Signed Integers: Seven bits (Bit0 to Bit6)
represent the magnitude of a number.
¨ The eighth bit (Bit7) represents the sign of
a number. The number is positive when
Bit7 is zero and negative when Bit7 is one.
¨ Positive numbers: 0 to 7F (0 to 127)
¨ Negative numbers: 80 to FF (-1 to -128)
¨ All negative numbers are represented in
2 ’s complement
Signed
Unsigned
Data Format (8-bit) (3 of 4)
n Binary Coded Decimal Numbers (BCD)
¨ 8 bits of a number divided into groups of four,
and each group represents a decimal digit
from 0 to 9
¨ Four-bit combinations from A through F in Hex
are invalid in BCD numbers
Data Format (8-bit) (4 of 4)
n American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII)
¨ Seven-bit alphanumeric code with 128
combinations (00 to 7F)
¨ Represents English alphabet, decimal digits
from 0 to 9, symbols, and commands
Storing Bits in Memory
¨ EEPROM, FLASH, RAM, etc.
¨ Each byte is stored in a single
memory register
¨ Each word is stored in two memory
locations (registers)
¨ DATA 0x
n 0x12àREG11 (High-order byte)
¨ 0001 0010
n 0x34àREG10 (Low-order byte)
¨ 0011 0100
What if we want to store -8? Remember -8 à 111 1000 (in two ’ s complement)
