Download Motivation - Organizational Behavior - Study Notes and more Study notes Organization Behaviour in PDF only on Docsity!
Chapter Eight Motivation
Objectives
To gain an understanding about:
Concept of Motivation
Theories of motivation
Need Theories Task Characteristics Theories.
Goal-setting Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Implication of Motivation theories for Performance and Satisfaction
What is Motivation?
The willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort‟s ability to satisfy some individual need.Where „need‟ is some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive.
The individual forces that account for the direction, level, and persistence of a person‟s effort expended at work.Where „direction‟ refers to an individual‟s choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives (e.g. whether to exert effort toward product quality or toward product quantity. ―Level‖ refers to the amount of effort a person puts forth (e.g. a lot or a little). ―Persistence‖ refers to the length of time a person sticks with a given action (e.g. to try to achieve product quality and give up when it is found difficult to attain.
Motivation Across Cultures
The determinants of motivation and the best ways to deal with it are likely to vary across different regions.Individual values and attitudes - both important aspects of motivation - have strong cultural foundations.
The theories of motivation
The theories of motivation can be divided into 3 broad categories.
1. Reinforcement theories - emphasize the means through which the process of **controlling an individual’s behavior by manipulating its consequences takes place.
- Content theories - focus primarily on individual needs - the physiological or** **psychological deficiencies that we feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate.
- Process theories - focus on the thought or cognitive processes that take place within** the minds of people and that influence their behavior.
Reinforcement Theories
Reinforcement is the administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior. Managing reinforcement properly can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual‟s behavior.This is a counterpoint to goal-setting theory.While goal-setting theory is a cognitive approach proposing that an individual‟s purposes direct his or her action; reinforcement theory is a behavioristic approach which argues that reinforcement conditions behavior. “What controls behavior are reinforcers -- any consequence that, when immediately following a response, increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated.
Classical and Operant Conditioning:
Classical conditioning is a form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior. (Ivan Pavlov) This learning occurs through conditioned stimuli. A stimulus is something that incites action and draws forth a response (the meat for the dogs).
Variable-Interval Schedule-Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses
Reinforcement schedule Nature of reinforcement Effect on behaviour
Continuous Reward given for each desired behaviour
Fast learning of new behaviour but rapid extinction
Fixed interval Reward given at fixed time intervals
Average and irregular performance with rapid extinction
Variable-Interval Reward given at variable times
Moderately high and stable performance with slow extinction
Fixed ratio Reward given at fixed amounts of output
High and stable performance attained quickly but also with rapid extinction
Variable ratio Reward given at a variable amount of output
Very high performance with slow extinction
Comparing Various Pay Programs
Approach Strengths Weaknesses
Variable pay Motivates for performance
Cost effective
Links organizational goals and individual rewards
Individuals do not always have control over factors that affect productivity
Earnings vary from year to year
Can cause unhealthy competition among
employees
Team based reward Encourages employees to work together effectively.
Promotes goal of team based work
Difficult to evaluate team performance sometimes
Equity problems could arise if all members paid equally
Skill based pay Increases the skill level of employees
Increases the flexibility of workforce
Can reduce the number of employees needed.
Employers may end up paying for unneeded skills
Employees may feel demotivated because they are not able to learn some skills.
Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play;
People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives;
The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility;
The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in management positions.
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
According to Herzberg, the factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction.Hygiene factors include factors such as: company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary,Personal life,status,security.Motivator factors include factors such as: achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility,advancement and growth.
ERG Theory
ERG Theory proposed by Clayton Alderfer of Yale University: Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs:
existence
relatedness
growth
Existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. (They include physiological and safety needs)Relatedness group is the desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships.Growth group is the intrinsic desire for personal development.
The ERG theory demonstrates that:more than one need may be operative at the same time;if the gratification of a higher-level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.
McClelland’s Learned Needs theory
Asserts that people learn many needs from culture. Three primary learned needs:
a. Need for achievement (nAch) — a high nAch is reflected in a person's:
i. Taking responsibility for solving problems.
ii. Setting moderate achievement goals and taking calculated risks.
iii. Desiring performance feedback.
b. Need for affiliation (nAff) — reflects desire for social interaction. Social relationships valued more important than task performance.
c. Need for power (nPow) — need for obtaining and exercising power and authority. Negative influence if manifested as dominance and submission; positive if it reflects persuasive and inspirational behavior.
McClelland asserts that needs are learned from coping with the environment; rewarded behaviors occur more often than unrewarded ones.
Allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarded tends to decrease the overall level of motivation. (This concept was proposed in the late 1960s.)
The interdependence of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards is a real phenomenon.
Observations:
- In the real world, when extrinsic rewards are stopped, it usually means the individual is no longer part of the organization.
- Very high intrinsic motivation levels are strongly resistant to the detrimental impacts of extrinsic rewards.
- On dull tasks, extrinsic rewards appear to increase intrinsic Motivation
Task Characteristic theories
These theories seek to identify task characteristics of jobs, how these characteristics are combined to form different jobs, and their relationship to employee motivation, satisfaction, and performance.
The task characteristics approach began with the pioneering work of Turner and Lawrence in the mid-1960s.There are at least 7 different task c haracteristics theories. Three most important task characteristics theories are:
- Requisite task attributes theory
- Job characteristics model, and
- Social information-processing model.
The more that the psychological states are present, the greater will be the employee‟s motivation, performance, and satisfaction, and the lower his or her absenteeism and likelihood of leaving the organization.
For individuals:
High growth need ---> experience psychological states,given that their jobs are enriched than are their counterparts , with a low growth needs.
The core dimensions can be combined into a single predictive index, called the motivating potential score (MPS).Most of the empirical evidence supports the general framework-- that is, there is a multiple set of job characteristics and these characteristics impact behavioral outcomes.
Given the current state of evidence, the following statements can be made with relative confidence:
- People who work on jobs with high-core job dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive than are those who do not.
- Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.
( For further details please refer to the Exhibit from Organizational Behaviour, Stephen P.Robbins, Timothi A.Judge and Seema Sanghi, 12th^ ed, Pearson Education, pp255)
Computing a Motivating Potential Score:
MPS = (skill + Task + Task ) /3 X autonomy X feedback
variety identity significance
Social Information-Processing Model:
Employees adopt attitudes and behaviors in response to the social cues provided by others with whom they have contact.
According to this model, the objective characteristic of a job does not change, but the job incumbent reconstructed reality based on messages he/she has gotten from others, i.e. peers, coworkers, etc.
Process/ Cognitive theories
Goal Setting theory
Focuses on the impact of performance goals on task performance
Central proposition: the performance goals that people hold for a particular task are likely to determine how well they perform the task. Difference in the content of the performance goals relate to differences in task performance Specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance as they clearly define acceptable levels of performance, increase the amount of effort exerted, increase task persistence, lead to more extensive strategy development and planning, orient individuals toward goal-related knowledge and activities. Setting these kinds of goals also leads to more effort, greater task persistence, directing individuals toward goal-relevant activities/knowledge, the development of task strategies and more planning
Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.
In addition to feedback, other factors have been found to influence the goals-performance relationship. These are:
- Goal commitment.2. Adequate self-efficacy(Self-efficacy refers to an individual‟s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.Individuals high in self-efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, whereas those low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their effort when given negative feedback) 3.Task-relevant ability and 4.Task complexity
Determinants of Self-Set Goals-
Goal choice is determined by 1.Past performance levels 2.Ability 3.Self-efficacy 4.Goal orientation 5.Conscientiousness 6.Need for achievement 7.Goal instrumentality 8.Mood
Control Theory
Expectancy of future success if discrepancy reduced
Past success/failure in reducing discrepancy failure
Tend to use cognitive strategies when discrepancy is large, expectancy for failure is high, and recent failures present
Social Cognitive Theory(Bandura, 1986)
Also holds that goals are the primary determinants of motivated behavior
Self-regulation of behavior entails 4 interrelated processes
1.Goal establishment 2.Self-observation 3.Self-evaluation 4.Self-reaction
Goal establishment
Set goals that represent a desired behavioral state. Goals are a function of: Past behavior; Are arranged in hierarchies (proximal-distal);Do more than just facilitate progress; Source of self- satisfaction; Personal mastery; Self-efficacy; Sustained interest. Proximal goals serve a self- satisfying function—lead to increases in feelings of efficacy and task interest when utilized as a means of facilitating distal goals
Goal- Behaviour Discrepancy
Negative goal-behavior discrepancies reduces self-efficacy & satisfaction, increases effort and leads to downward goal revision. Positive discrepancies leads to upward goal revision and increases self-efficacy. Self efficacy -impacts goal establishment, impacts performance and increases strategy development & planning.
Discrepancy Reduction/Production
It is the change in satisfaction and/or self-efficacy that motivates discrepancy reduction strategies. Some of these strategies are:
Increase effort
Change task strategy
Lower goal
Abandon activity (if discrepancy is large)
Also a discrepancy production process (set higher standards) depends on:
Self efficacy
Ability level
Perceived importance of the goal
The process is not automatic. Responses may differ due to factors that will alter perceptions of discrepancies like Dispositional factors, Affective factors, Cognitive factors and Contextual factors
To know further about the joint effects of goals and self efficiacy on performance please refer to Exhibit from Organizational Behaviour, Stephen P.Robbins, Timothi A.Judge and Seema Sanghi, 12 th^ ed, Pearson Education, pp
Equity theory
Individuals make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relatives to those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities. Inequity arises when anemployee is either underrewarded or overrewarded.J. Stacy Adams proposed that this negative tension state provides the motivation to do something to correct it.
When employees perceive an inequity they can be predicted to make one of six choices:
- Change their inputs.
- Change their outcomes.
- Distort perceptions of self.
- Distort perceptions of others.
- Choose a different referent.
- Leave the field.
Specifically, the theory establishes 4 propositions relating to inequitable pay:
- Given payment by time, over-rewarded employees will produce more than will equitably paid employees.
- Given payment by quantity of production, over-rewarded employees will produce fewer, but higher-quality, units than will equitably paid employees.
Instrumentality: perceptions of the link between obtainment of the 1st level outcome and the attainment of 2nd level outcomes
Valence: Affective orientation held toward the outcome. Positively valent outcomes are desirable and Negatively valent outcomes areundesirable
These 3 perceptions combine to create a motivational force.The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that an act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. (This is first proposed by Victor Vroom)
Vj = ƒΣIjkVk+*
Vj = valence of outcome j
Ijk = instrumentality of outcome j for the attainment of outcome k
Vk = Valence is anticipated satisfaction
Fi = fi Σ (EijVj)
Fi = force to perform act I
Vj = valence of outcome j
Eij = expectancy that act i will lead to (be followed by) outcome j
Thus, it includes 3 variables or relationships:
- Attractiveness (of the outcome).
- Performance - reward linkage. Performance = f ( A, M, O)Ability = intelligence and skills
O = Opportunity to perform
- Effort - performance linkage.
The key to understanding of an individual‟s goals and the linkage between effort and performance, between performance and rewards, and finally, between rewards and individual goal satisfaction.
Some of the issues expectancy theory brought forward:
- It emphasizes payoffs or rewards. (It is a theory based on self-interest. “ Expectancy theory is a form of calculative, psychological hedonism in which the ultimate motive of every human act is asserted to be the maximization of pleasure and/or the minimization of pain.”
2.The attractiveness of rewards.
3. Expectancy theory emphasizes expected behaviors
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Rewards exert their influence on intrinsic motivation through their ability to satisfy or frustrate two innate needs:
Need for competence (White, 1968)
Need for self-determination (deCharmes, 1968)
If a reward enhances perceptions of competence and self-determination, intrinsic motivation will also increase
Theory considers both tangible and environmental rewards (feedback, recognition)
Factors that impact intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000)
Negatively:
Performance contingent rewards
Negative feedback
Threats
Deadlines
Directives
Competition
Positively:
Leading for Meaningfulness
A noncynical climate Clearly identified passions
An exciting vision Relevant task purposes
Whole tasks Leading for Progress
A collaborative climate
Milestones Celebrations
Access to customers Measurement of improvement
(For more details please read From Intrinsic Motivation at Work: Building Energy and Commitment****. Copyright © K. Thomas. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc., San Francisco, CA).
Comparison of Motivation Theories
Theory Source of Motivation Empirical Support Industrial Applicability
Need Theory Unconscious, innate needs
Weak: Little support for proposed relationships among needs
Very limited: Theory lacks sufficient specificity to guide behavior
Equity Theory Drive to reduce feelings of tension caused by perceived inequity
Mixed: Good support for underpayment inequity, weak support for overpayment inequity
Limited: Social comparisons are made, but feelings of inequity can be reduced through means other than increased motivation
Expectancy Theory Relationship among desired outcomes, performance-reward, and effort- performance
Moderate-strong: More strongly supported in within-subject (placement) than between-subject (selection) experiments
Strong: Theory provides a rational basis for why people expend effort, although not all behavior is as consciously determined as postulated
variables
Reinforcement Theory
Schedule of reinforcement used to reward people for their performance
Moderate: Ratio reinforcement schedules evoke superior performance compared to interval schedules, but little difference exists among various ratio schedules
Moderate: Contingent payment for performance is possible in some jobs, although ethical problems can be present in an organization’s attempt to shape employee behavior
Goal Setting Theory Intention to direct behavior in pursuit of acceptable goals
Moderate-strong: Performance under goal- setting conditions usually superior to conditions under which no goals are set
Strong: Ability to set goals is not restricted to certain types of people or jobs
Putting It All Together
However, for practical purposes all the motivation theories should be considered together as an integrated concept as in the organizational setup all of them work together in a well blended way to have an effect on an employee’s attitude or behaviour.For further details please refer to Exhibit from Organizational Behaviour, Stephen P.Robbins, Timothi A.Judge and Seema Sanghi, 12th^ ed, Pearson Education, pp
Implication of Motivation theories for Performance and Satisfaction
Reinforcement Theories
Reinforcement Theory - predicts factors like quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.
Content Theories
Need Theories - These were Maslow‟s hierarchy, motivation-hygiene, ERG, and McClelland‟s need theories. Employees will be motivated to satisfy their needs. Therefore …If needs are
