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Chapter Five
Personality
Objectives
Understanding the definition of personality
Understanding the sources of personality differences
Understanding the Personality structure
Understanding the relationship of Personality and Behaviour
Measuring Personality
PERSONALITY-IMPORTANCE AND DETERMINANTS
PERSONALITY-WHAT IS IT?
The term personality is derived from the Latin word ‘Persona’ meaning mask. To the Romans ‘Persona’ denoted as ‘one appears to others’ not ‘as one actually is’. Hall and Lindzey ( 1978) classified the popular meaning of personality under two headings:
The first usage equates the term to social skill or adroitness-An individual’s personality is assessed by the effectiveness with which he is able to elicit positive reactions from a variety of persons under different circumstances.
The second usage considers personality of the individual to inhere in the most outstanding or salient impression which he creates on others.
The popular nonscientific definition of personality has two defects: (1)First it emphasizes only the manifest aspects of the intricate pattern of personality .(2)Second, in emphasizing only the objective aspects of personality, it does not indicate what the real personality is, the subjective or interior organization which is responsible for the expressive aspects.
Early psychological definitions of personality
Woodworth (1947)- Personality is the quality of individual’s total behaviour
Dashiell (1949)- Personality is the total picture of an individual’s organized behaviour, especially as it can be characterized by his fellowmen in a consistent way
Munn (1965)-Personality is the most characteristic integration of an individual’s structure and activities. It is characteristic in dual sense (1) It is unique, thus differentiating the individual from all others (2) It is fairly consistent, representing the customary integration of a particular individual’s structures and activities.
These representative early definitions stressed the manifest aspect of personality.
To understand what personality is, the intricacy of its structure and its influence on the quality of individual’s total behaviour it is important to understand its motivational aspect.
Allport’s (1961)definition is widely accepted as the most comprehensive definition of personality which emphasizes on the motivational aspect of personality. Allport (1961) defined personality as the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and thought
Organization-Patterning of the independent parts of personality structure, each of which has special relation to the whole
Dynamic-Constantly evolving or changing nature of personality. Not only does the personality become more complex in structure as the individual’s physical and psychological characteristics develop, but from time to time and from situation to situation, there are changes in the structural organization
Psychophysical systems-A psychophysical system is composed of habits, attitudes, emotional states, sentiments, motives and beliefs all of which are psychological but have a physical basis in the individual’s neural, glandular or general bodily states. They are the product of learning.
Determine-The word determine emphasizes the motivational role of the psychophysical systems.Within the individual , these system lie behind specific acts and influence the form they will take. Once an attitude, belief, habit, sentiment or some other elements of a psychophysical system has been aroused by a stimulus, either from the environment or from within the individual , it provokes adjustive and expressive acts which are characteristic form of expression of that individual
Characteristic-The adjective characteristic refers to the distinctiveness in a person’s behaviour as an expression of the patterns of his particular psychophysical system.
Behaviour and thought-Behavioural environment involves mastery as well as passive adaptation.
Some overlapping concepts
(5)Aspiration and achievements
(6)Family determinants
Physical determinants
(1)The body has direct influence on the quantity and quality of a person’s behaviour and indirect influence through the way person perceives his body as a source of self evaluation.
(2)Body build directly influences personality by determining what the person can or cannot do, what his energy level will be and what his reaction will be to those with superior or inferior body build compared to him. Indirectly body build influences personality by body cathexes or the degree of satisfaction person experiences due to body.
(3)Attractiveness indirectly affects personality due to the attitude of others to the attractiveness of the person
(4) Homeostasis directly influences quality of person’s behaviour and indirectly through the way others judge his behaviour
(5) Body control affects what a person can or cannot do and judgments others make of him.
Intellectual determinant
Intelligence provide the person with the capacity to meet and solve the problems that adjustment to life requires.Intellectual capacity influence personality directly through the kind of life adjustments individual makes and indirectly through the the judgements others make of him on the basis of his intelectual achievements
Intelligence affects adjustment in (1) values (2) morality and (3) humor
Emotional determinant
Emotions are important personality determinants because they affect personal and social adjustments.They do so directly by colouring interests, attitudes, likes and dislikes and by upsetting homeostasis. Indirect effect comes from social judgments based on how the person handles his emotions and from his ability to establish emotional relationship with others. Emotional balance, deprivation, expression,catharsis, stress affects personality directly and indirectly.
Social determinant
The social group judges a person in terms of his conformity to group expectations regarding proper performance behaviour and role playing.Social judgments then influence self evaluation and hence self concept.
Social deprivation, social acceptance, social status and social mobility affects personality
Aspiration and achievement determinant
Aspirations are ego-involved goals person sets for himself.Aspiration is influenced by intelligence, sex, personal interests and values, family pressures, group expectations, cultural traditions, competition with others, past experience, mass media, personal characteristics.. Level of aspiration affects personality.
Achievement can be judged objectively by comparing a person’s achievement with those of peers and subjectively by comparing his achievement with his level of aspiration
Family determinant
The direct influence of family on personality comes child training method used to mold personality pattern and the communication of interests attitudes and values between family members.
The indirect effect comes from the person’s identification with a family member he admires, respects and loves and whom he either consciously or unconsciously imitates and the mirror image the family members provide to him to evaluate himself.
The family climate, order of birth, size of family, family composition, role played in family, social acceptance of the family affects personality.
Different Perspectives in Personality
(a) Emphasis on Psychodynamics
Psychoanalytic perspective- Sigmund Freud
According to Freud there are three Levels of awareness like Conscious, Preconscious, and Unconscious. Conscious - all things we are aware of at any given moment; Preconscious - everything that can, with a little effort, be brought into consciousness; Unconscious - inaccessible warehouse of anxiety-producing thoughts and drives
Structure of personality has been defined by Freud as consisting of three components-id, ego and superego. Id is the biological basis of personality. It consists of inherited characteristics of individual and is a collection of instinctive desires, urges or needs all demanding immediate gratification. Id is irrational and impulsive, adhering to pleasure principle. Ego is the main mental force controlling behaviour in well
People can be either Extroverts or Introverts, depending on the direction of their activity; Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, Intuitive, according to their own information pathways; Judging or Perceiving, depending on the method in which they process received information.
Extroverts vs. Introvert Extroverts are directed towards the objective world whereas Introverts are directed towards the subjective world. The most common differences between Extroverts and Introverts are shown below:
Extroverts
are interested in what is happening around them are open and often talkative compare their own opinions with the opinions of others like action and initiative easily make new friends or adapt to a new group say what they think are interested in new people easily break unwanted relations
Introverts
are interested in their own thoughts and feelings need to have own territory often appear reserved, quiet and thoughtful usually do not have many friends have difficulties in making new contacts like concentration and quiet do not like unexpected visits and therefore do not make them work well alone
Sensing vs. Intuition Sensing is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its physical qualities and its affection by other information. Intuition is an ability to deal with the information on the basis of its hidden potential and its possible existence. The most common differences between Sensing and Intuitive types are shown below:
Sensing types
see everyone and sense everything live in the here and now quickly adapt to any situation like pleasures based on physical sensation are practical and active are realistic and self-confident
Intuitive types
are mostly in the past or in the future worry about the future more than the present are interested in everything new and unusual do not like routine are attracted more to the theory than the practice often have doubts
Thinking vs. Feeling Thinking is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its structure and its function. Feeling is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its initial energetic condition
and its interactions. The most common differences between Thinking and Feeling type are shown below:
Thinking types
are interested in systems, structures, patterns expose everything to logical analysis are relatively cold and unemotional evaluate things by intellect and right or wrong have difficulties talking about feelings do not like to clear up arguments or quarrels
Feeling types
are interested in people and their feelings easily pass their own moods to others pay great attention to love and passion evaluate things by ethics and good or bad can be touchy or use emotional manipulation often give compliments to please people
Perceiving vs. Judging Perceiving types are motivated into activity by the changes in a situation. Judging types are motivated into activity by their decisions resulting from the changes in a situation. The most common differences between Perceiving and Judging types are shown below:
Perceiving types
act impulsively following the situation can start many things at once without finishing them properly prefer to have freedom from obligations are curious and like a fresh look at things work productivity depends on their mood often act without any preparation
Judging types
do not like to leave unanswered questions plan work ahead and tend to finish it do not like to change their decisions have relatively stable workability easily follow rules and discipline
Stage perspective
Personality Development along Eight Life Stages(Erik Erikson, 1963, p273)
Stage and Age Choice point
Stage 1: Infancy: First Year of life Basic Trust v/s Basic Mistrust
Stage 2: Early childhood :up to third year of age Autonomy v/s Shame and Doubt
Stylistic traits-refers to gestures and styles of behaviour unrelated to specific tactics to achieve a particular goal
Allport categorized trait as Cardinal trait, central trait and secondary trait.
- Cardinal trait - This is the trait that dominates and shapes a person's behavior. These are rare as most people lack a single theme that shape their lives.
- Central trait - This is a general characteristic found in some degree in every person. These are the basic building blocks that shape most of our behavior although they are not as overwhelming as cardinal traits. An example of a central trait would be honesty.
- Secondary trait - These are characteristics seen only in certain circumstances (such as particular likes or dislikes that a very close friend may know). They must be included to provide a complete picture of human complexity.
Cattell’s 16 PF
Cattell saw traits as important units of presonality that have predictive value.In contrast to Allport, who felt traits were part of our biology, Cattell thought of traits as abstract concepts.
Surface trait and Source trait
Surface traits- Refers to those traits that seem readily apparent. However, surface traits are based on people’s perceptions of personality; they don’t necessarily provide the best description of underlying personality dimensions. E.g., you encounter a friendly, gregarious librarian who is very helpful & you infer she possesses the trait of sociability.
Source traits- Refers to the deeper patterns underlying personality. These source traits emerge despite differences in testing situations, questionnaire methods, & so forth. Cattell used factor analysis to identify 16 source traits. Using these 16 source traits he developed the 16PF. The set of scores on all factors is the profile of the individual.
The 16 PF are
Descriptors of Low Range Primary Factor Descriptors of High Range
Impersonal, distant, cool, reserved,
detached, formal, aloof ( Schizothymia )
Warmth (A)
Warm, outgoing, attentive to others, kindly, easy-going, participating, likes people ( Affectothymia )
Concrete thinking, lower general mental Reasoning Abstract-thinking, more intelligent, bright,
capacity, less intelligent, unable to handle abstract problems ( Lower Scholastic Mental Capacity )
(B) higher general mental capacity, fast learner ( Higher Scholastic Mental Capacity )
Reactive emotionally, changeable, affected by feelings, emotionally less stable, easily upset ( Lower Ego Strength )
Emotional Stability (C)
Emotionally stable, adaptive, mature, faces reality calmly ( Higher Ego Strength )
Deferential, cooperative, avoids conflict, submissive, humble, obedient, easily led, docile, accommodating (Submissiveness)
Dominance
(E)
Dominant, forceful, assertive, aggressive, competitive, stubborn, bossy ( Dominance )
Serious, restrained, prudent, taciturn, introspective, silent ( Desurgency )
Liveliness (F)
Lively, animated, spontaneous, enthusiastic, happy go lucky, cheerful,
expressive, impulsive ( Surgency )
Expedient, nonconforming, disregards rules, self indulgent ( Low Super Ego Strength )
Rule-
Consciousness
(G)
Rule-conscious, dutiful, conscientious, conforming, moralistic, staid, rule bound ( High Super Ego Strength )
Shy, threat-sensitive, timid, hesitant, intimidated ( Threctia )
Social
Boldness
(H)
Socially bold, venturesome, thick skinned, uninhibited ( Parmia )
Utilitarian, objective, unsentimental, tough minded, self-reliant, no-nonsense, rough ( Harria )
Sensitivity
(I)
Sensitive, aesthetic, sentimental, tender minded, intuitive, refined ( Premsia )
Trusting, unsuspecting, accepting, unconditional, easy ( Alaxia )
Vigilance (L)
Vigilant, suspicious, skeptical, distrustful, oppositional ( Protension )
Grounded, practical, prosaic, solution oriented, steady, conventional ( Praxernia )
Abstractedness (M)
Abstract, imaginative, absent minded, impractical, absorbed in ideas ( Autia )
Forthright, genuine, artless, open, guileless, naive, unpretentious, involved ( Artlessness )
Privateness (N)
Private, discreet, nondisclosing, shrewd, polished, worldly, astute, diplomatic ( Shrewdness )
Self-Assured, unworried, complacent, secure, free of guilt, confident, self satisfied ( Untroubled )
Apprehension
(O)
Apprehensive, self doubting, worried, guilt prone, insecure, worrying, self blaming ( Guilt Proneness )
Active, vigorous, impulsive, dominant, stable, sociable, reflective.
Type perspective
The concept of personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of
individuals. Personality types are sometimes distinguished from personality traits, with the latter
embodying a smaller grouping of behavioral tendencies. Types are sometimes said to involve qualitative differences between people, whereas traits might be construed as quantitative differences.
(Accessed from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Personality _psychology)
4 humours ( Hippocrates)
Yellow bile (Choleric), blackbile (melancholic), high blood pressure (sanguine), excess phlegm (Phlegmatic)
Leigh (1985)
People catalyst (choleric) involvement with those around him, sees service to mankind as a life goal.
Hard charger (melancholic) believes in tradition, follows rules and sees a prescribed way of doing things.
Fast track (sanguine) risk in terms of challenge. He is good at pulling things and people together.
Power broker (phlegmatic) innovative and resourceful, good at motivating others.
Eysenck’s typology
(accessed from nwfamilypsychology.com/Documents/Chapter10_ Eysenck .ppt)
Hierarchically organized, consisting of types, traits, and habits.
Types – each based on a set of observed inter-correlations of various traits. Traits – each is inferred from inter-correlations among habitual responses. Habitual Responses – each based on specific observable responses.
Three factors:
Introversion/Extroversion
Stability/Neuroticism
Impulse Control/Psychoticism
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EQP) – measured extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism (PEN).
Extroverts are sociable and impulsive individuals who like excitement and who are oriented toward external reality. Where introverts are quiet, introspective individuals who are oriented toward inner reality and who prefer well-ordered lives.
Neurotics are emotionally unstable individuals whose anxiety levels are disproportionate to the realities of the situation or are psychopaths.
Psychotics are generally more severe in their disorder from neurotics. They are aloof, inhumane, aggressive, and insensitive to the needs of others, but also creative.
Causal Aspects (accessed from http://www.personalityresearch.org/pen.html)
Extraversion. The PEN model is biologically based. Extraversion is based on cortical arousal. Arousal can be measured by skin conductance, brain waves, or sweating. While theoretically introverts are chronically overaroused and jittery, theoretically extraverts are chronically underaroused and bored. The theory presupposes that there is an optimal level of arousal, and that performance deteriorates as one becomes more or less aroused than this optimal level. The finding that arousal is related to performance as an inverted U-shaped curve is called the Yerkes-Dodson Law. Extraversion is related to social interest and positive affect. Some investigators have proposed that social interest causes positive affect, since the best of times are usually those spent with other people. However, Diener and Larsen (1993) have found that this hypothesis is incorrect. Another alternative is that positive affect causes social interest, since being very enthusiastic and fun loving may make people want to go out and be with other people. This hypothesis has not yet been studied. Yet another possibility is that a third factor causes both positive affect and social interest. Dopamine responsivity, which makes people highly sensitive to reward, may be the factor responsible for both positive affect and social interest. Neuroticism. Neuroticism is based on activation thresholds in the sympathetic nervous system or visceral brain. This is the part of the brain that is responsible for the fight-or-flight response in the face of danger. Activation can be measured by heart rate, blood pressure, cold hands, sweating, and muscular tension (especially in the forehead). Neurotic people, who have a low activation threshold, experience negative affect (fight-or-flight) in the face of very minor stressors--i.e., they are easily upset. Emotionally stable people, who have a high activation threshold, experience negative affect only in the face of very major stressors--i.e., they are calm under pressure. It is interesting to note that measures of activation are not highly correlated. That is, people differ in which responses are influenced by stress--some sweat, others get headaches. This is called individual response specificity. It is also interesting to note that stressors differ in the responses they elicit. This is called stimulus response specificity. Psychoticism. Psychoticism is associated not only with the liability to have a psychotic episode (or break with reality), but also with aggression. While less research has been done on Psychoticism than on Extraversion and Neuroticism, the research that has been done has indicated that Psychoticism too has a biological basis: increased testosterone levels.
THE BIG FIVE MODEL
Decisions: When making decisions, do you prefer to first look at logic and consistency or first look at the people and special circumstances? This is called Thinking (T) or Feeling (F).
Structure : In dealing with the outside world, do you prefer to get things decided or do you prefer to stay open to new information and options? This is called Judging (J) or Perceiving (P).
These four opposite pairs of preferences define eight different ways of dealing with information, which in turn result in sixteen Psychological Types (please read for details
http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/-)
Temperament
Accessed from (http://www.keirsey.com/)
Temperament is a configuration of observable personality traits, such as habits of communication, patterns of action, and sets of characteristic attitudes, values, and talents.
Communication: Concrete vs. Abstract
First, people naturally think and talk about what they are interested in, and if you listen carefully to people's conversations, you find two broad but distinct areas of subject matter.
Some people talk primarily about the external, concrete world of everyday reality: facts and figures, work and play, home and family, news, sports and weather--all the who-what-when-where-and how much's of life.
Other people talk primarily about the internal, abstract world of ideas: theories and conjectures, dreams and philosophies, beliefs and fantasies--all the why's, if's, and what-might-be's of life.
At times, of course, everyone addresses both sorts of topics, but in their daily lives, and for the most part, Concrete people talk about reality, while Abstract people talk about ideas.
Action: Utilitarian vs. Cooperative
Second, at every turn people are trying to accomplish their goals, and if you watch closely how people go about their business, you see that there are two fundamentally opposite types of action.
Some people act primarily in a utilitarian or pragmatic manner, that is, they do what gets results, what achieves their objectives as effectively or efficiently as possible, and only afterwards do they check to see if they are observing the rules or going through proper channels.
Other people act primarily in a cooperative or socially acceptable manner, that is, they try to do the right thing, in keeping with agreed upon social rules, conventions, and codes of conduct, and only later do they concern themselves with the effectiveness of their actions.
These two ways of acting can overlap, certainly, but as they lead their lives, Utilitarian people instinctively, and for the most part, do what works, while Cooperative people do what's right.
It also encompasses personal needs, the kinds of contributions that individuals make in the workplace, and the roles they play in society. Dr. David Keirsey has identified mankind's four basic temperaments as the Artisan, the Guardian, the Rational, and the Idealist.
As Concrete Cooperators, Guardians speak mostly of their duties and responsibilities, of what they can keep an eye on and take good care of, and they're careful to obey the laws, follow the rules, and respect the rights of others.
As Abstract Cooperators, Idealists speak mostly of what they hope for and imagine might be possible for people, and they want to act in good conscience, always trying to reach their goals without compromising their personal code of ethics.
As Concrete Utilitarians, Artisans speak mostly about what they see right in front of them, about what they can get their hands on, and they will do whatever works, whatever gives them a quick, effective payoff, even if they have to bend the rules.
As Abstract Utilitarians, Rationals speak mostly of what new problems intrigue them and what new solutions they envision, and always pragmatic, they act as efficiently as possible to achieve their objectives, ignoring arbitrary rules and conventions if need be.
For Further interesting readings on personality and temperaments please refer to: http://www.keirsey.com/ and http://www.friesian.com/types.htm
Type A
Aggressive involvement in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time and if necessary against the opposing efforts of other things or people
Type B
Rarely hurried by the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of things or participate in an endless growing series of events in an ever decreasing amount of time.
Type C (cancer-prone) personality
Characterized as someone who responds to stress with depression and a sense of hopelessness. Type C personalities have a tendency to be introverted, respectful, eager to please, conforming and compliant.
Artistic (Creator) – Prefers creative, original, and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression. Traits include: imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, emotional, and impractical. Example professions include: artist, musician, and writer.
Social (Helper) – Prefers activities that involve helping, healing, or developing others. Traits include cooperative, friendly, sociable, and understanding. Example professions include counselor, doctor, and teacher.
Enterprising (Persuader) – Prefers competitive environments, leadership, influence, selling, and status. Traits include ambitious, domineering, energetic, and self-confident. Example professions include Management, Marketing, and Sales Person.
Conventional (Organizer) – Prefers precise, rule-regulated, orderly, and unambiguous activities. Traits include conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative, and inflexible. Example professions include accountant, clerk and editor.
Match Personalities and Jobs People are happiest when they are put in jobs that match their personality. Robbins writes:
The evidence indicates that employee satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are in agreement. social individuals, for instance, should be in social jobs, conventional people in conventional jobs, and so forth.
Holland’s Hexagon Holland created a hexagon view to show the relationships of personality types. Personality types closer to each other are more alike. Personality types further away are least alike.
For example, artistic is least like conventional, but closer to investigative and social.
Compatible Work Environments The following table summarizes the compatibility of personality type with work environments:
Personality Type Most Work Environments^ Compatible^ Compatible Work Environments^ Least Work Environments^ Compatible
Realistic Realistic
Investigative Conventional Social
Investigative Investigative
Realistic Artistic Enterprising
Artistic Artistic
Investigative Social (^) Conventional
Social Social Artistic Realistic
