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Early Childhood Development: Motor Progress, Art, Cognitive Abilities, and Literacy, Study notes of Human Development

Arizona State University (ASU) - TempeHuman Development

Various aspects of early childhood development, including motor progress, art development, cognitive abilities, and literacy. Topics covered include the role of play in motor development, the development of children's art, cognitive advances in preschoolers, and the early stages of literacy. The document also discusses the impact of factors such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and educational interventions on children's development.

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Chapter 7 – Outline
CDE 232
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
I. BODY GROWTH (pp. 208-210)
A. On the average, 2 to 3 inches in height and about 5 pounds in weight are
added each year.
B. The child gradually becomes thinner; girls retain somewhat more body fat,
whereas boys are slightly more muscular.
C. Individual differences in body size are even more apparent during early
childhood than in infancy.
D. Skeletal Growth
1. Between ages 2 and 6, approximately 45 new epiphyses, or growth
centers in which cartilage hardens into bone, emerge in various parts of
the skeleton.
2. By the end of the preschool years, children start to lose their primary
teeth.
3. Childhood tooth decay remains high, especially among low-SES
youngsters.
E. Asynchronies in Physical Growth
1. Physical growth is an asynchronous process: different body systems
have their own timed patterns of maturation.
2. The general growth curve is a curve that represents overall changes in
body size-rapid growth during infancy, slower gains in early and middle
childhood, and rapid growth once more during adolescence.
3. Exceptions to this trend are found in the development of the reproductive
and lymph systems.
II. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT (pp. 210-212)
A. Between 2 and 6 years, the brain increases from 70 to 90 percent of its adult
weight.
B. The two hemispheres of the cortex develop at different rates.
I. The left hemisphere shows dramatic growth between 3 and 6 years and
then levels off.
2. The right hemisphere matures slowly throughout early and middle
childhood, showing a slight growth spurt between ages 8 and 10.
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Chapter 7 – Outline

CDE 232

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

I. BODY GROWTH (pp. 208-210) A. On the average, 2 to 3 inches in height and about 5 pounds in weight are added each year. B. The child gradually becomes thinner; girls retain somewhat more body fat, whereas boys are slightly more muscular. C. Individual differences in body size are even more apparent during early childhood than in infancy. D. Skeletal Growth

  1. Between ages 2 and 6, approximately 45 new epiphyses, or growth centers in which cartilage hardens into bone, emerge in various parts of the skeleton.
  2. By the end of the preschool years, children start to lose their primary teeth.
  3. Childhood tooth decay remains high, especially among low-SES youngsters. E. Asynchronies in Physical Growth
  4. Physical growth is an asynchronous process: different body systems have their own timed patterns of maturation.
  5. The general growth curve is a curve that represents overall changes in body size-rapid growth during infancy, slower gains in early and middle childhood, and rapid growth once more during adolescence.
  6. Exceptions to this trend are found in the development of the reproductive and lymph systems. II. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT (pp. 210-212) A. Between 2 and 6 years, the brain increases from 70 to 90 percent of its adult weight. B. The two hemispheres of the cortex develop at different rates. I. The left hemisphere shows dramatic growth between 3 and 6 years and then levels off.
  7. The right hemisphere matures slowly throughout early and middle childhood, showing a slight growth spurt between ages 8 and 10.

C. Lateralization and Handedness I. By age 2, hand preference is stable, and it increases during early and middle childhood.

  1. The dominant cerebral hemisphere is the hemisphere responsible for skilled motor action. The left hemisphere is dominant in right-handed individuals. In left-handed individuals, the right hemisphere may be dominant, or motor and language skills may be shared between the hemispheres.
  2. The brains of left-handers tend to be less strongly lateralized than those of right- handers.
  3. New evidence indicates that the way most fetuses lie in the uterus-turned toward the leftmay promote greater postural control by the right side of the body.
  4. Although left- or mixed-handedness is more frequent among severely retarded and mentally ill people, atypical lateralization is probably not responsible for the problems of these individuals.
  5. Left- and mixed-handed children are more likely than their right-handed agemates to develop outstanding verbal and mathematical talents by adolescence. D. Other Advances in Brain Development
  6. The cerebellum is located at the rear and base of the brain and aids in balance and control of body movement.
  7. The fibers linking the cerebellum to the cerebral cortex do not complete myelinization until about age 4.
  8. The reticular formation maintains alertness and consciousness; it myelinates throughout early childhood and into adolescence.
  9. The corpus callosum is the large bundle of fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres. Myelinization of the corpus callosum does not begin until the end of the first year of life, but is fairly advanced by age 4 to 5. III. INFLUENCES ON PHYSICAL GROWTH AND HEALTH (pp. 212-217) A. Heredity and Hormones
  10. Children's physical size and rate of growth are related to that of their parents'.
  11. The pituitary gland is a gland located near the base of the brain that releases hormones affecting physical growth.
  12. Growth hormone (GH) is necessary for growth from birth on.
  13. Controversy currently surrounds the issue of whether GH should be used for treatment of short children who are not GH deficient.
  14. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroxine, which is necessary for normal brain development and body growth. B. Emotional Well-Being I. Preschoolers with very stressful home lives suffer more respiratory and intestinal illnesses as well as unintentional injuries.
  15. Deprivation dwarfism is a growth disorder observed between 2 and 15 years of age that is caused by emotional deprivation. It is characterized by very short stature, light weight in proportion to height, immature skeletal age, and decreased GH secretion. C. Nutrition
  16. Preschoolers' appetites decrease because growth has slowed.
  17. In addition, they become picky eaters. This is adaptive because young children are still learning which items are safe to eat and which are not.
  18. Because caloric intake is reduced, preschoolers need a high-quality diet.
  19. Repeated exposure to new foods increases acceptance.
  20. The emotional climate at mealtimes has a powerful impact on children's eating habits.
  21. Insufficient amounts of iron, calcium, vitamin C, and vitamin A are the most common diet deficiencies of the preschool years.

a. During early childhood, children gradually become self-sufficient at dressing and feeding. b. Shoe tying, mastered around age 6, requires a longer attention span, memory for an intricate series of hand movements, and the dexterity to perform them.

  1. Drawing and Writing a. As the young child's ability to mentally represent the world expands, marks on the page take on definite meaning. b. A variety of factors, including cognitive advances and exposure to pictorial images in their environment, combine with fine motor control in the development of children's artful representations.
  2. From Scibbles to Pictures a. Use of lines to represent object boundaries permits children to draw their first pictures of a person by age 3 or 4. b. Unlike adults, young children do not demand a drawing be realistic.
  3. Cultural Variations in Development of Drawing a. In cultures that emphasize artistic expression, children's drawings reflect the conventions of their culture and are more sophisticated. b. Schooling provides opportunities to draw and write, see pictures, and grasp the notion that artistic forms have socially shared meanings. c. Figure drawing varies somewhat from culture to culture, but overall solutions follow the same sequence.
  4. Early Printing a. As young children experiment with lines and shapes, notice print in picture books, and observe people writing, they try to print letters and, later on, words. b. Not until they learn to read do children find it useful to distinguish between mirror- image forms. C. Individual and Sex Differences in Motor Skills
  5. Body build, ethnicity, sex, and opportunity for physical play are among the many factors that affect young children's motor progress.
  6. African-American children tend to have longer limbs, so they have better leverage in running and jumping than do Caucasian children.
  7. Boys are slightly ahead of girls in skills that emphasize force and power.
  8. Girls have a slight edge in fine motor skills and in certain gross motor skills that require a combination of good balance and foot movement, such as hopping and skipping.
  9. Social pressure for boys to be active and physically skilled and for girls to play quietly at fine motor activities may exaggerate small, genetically based differences.
  10. Except for throwing, there is no evidence that preschoolers exposed to formal lessons are ahead in motor development.
  11. The social climate created by adults can enhance or dampen preschooler's motor progress.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT I. PIAGET'S THEORY: THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (pp. 221-227) A. The preoperational stage is Piaget's second stage, marked by rapid growth in representational, or symbolic, activity. B. Advances in Mental Representation

  1. Language is our most flexible means of mental representation.
  2. Piaget believed that sensorimotor activity provides the foundation for language, just as it underlies deferred imitation and make-believe play. C. Make-Believe Play
  3. Make-believe play increases dramatically during early childhood.
  1. Piaget believed that through pretending, young children practice and strengthen newly acquired representational schemes.
  2. Development of Make-Believe a. Over time, play becomes increasingly detached from the real-life conditions associated with it. b. Make-believe play gradually becomes less self-centered as children realize that agents and recipients of pretend actions can be independent of themselves. c. Play also includes increasingly complex scheme combinations. d. Sociodramatic play is the make-believe play with peers that first appears around age 2 1/2 and increases rapidly until 4 to 5 years. e. Awareness that make-believe is a representational activity increases between ages 4 and 8.
  3. Advantages of Make-Believe a. Today, Piaget's view of make-believe as mere practice of representational schemes is regarded as too limited. b. In comparison to social nonpretend activities, during social pretend preschoolers' interactions last longer, show more involvement, draw larger numbers of children into the activity, and are more cooperative. c. Preschoolers who spend more time at Sociodramatic play are advanced in general intellectual development and seen as more socially competent by their teachers. D. Limitations of Preoperational Thought
  4. Piaget described preschool children in terms of what they cannot, rather than can, understand.
  5. Operations are mental representations of actions that obey logical rules.
  6. In the preoperational stage, children's thinking is rigid, limited to one aspect of a situation at a time, and strongly influenced by the way things appear at the moment.
  7. Egocentrism a. Egocentrism is the inability to distinguish the symbolic viewpoints of others from one's own. b. Piaget's most convincing demonstration of egocentrism involves a task called the three mountains problem (see Figure 7.7). c. Animistic thinking is the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions. d. Thoughts proceed so strongly from a single point of view that children do not accommodate, or revise, their faulty reasoning in response to their physical and social worlds.
  8. Inability to Conserve a. Conservation refers to the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when outward appearance changes. b. Centration is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect other important features. c. Perception-bound describes thinking that is easily distracted by the concrete, perceptual appearance of objects. d. States rather than transformations is the tendency to treat the initial and final states in a problem as completely unrelated. e. Another feature of preoperational thought is irreversibility, or the inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point.
  9. Lack of Hierarchical Classification a. Hierarchical classification is the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences between the groups.
  1. As children get older and tasks become easier, their self-directed speech declines and is internalized as silent, inner speech.
  2. Children's speech-to-self is now referred to as private speech.
  3. Private speech is used more often when tasks are difficult or when a child is confused about how to proceed. B. Social Origins of Early Childhood Cognition
  4. During early childhood, communication in the zone of proximal development includes verbal dialogues as adults and more skilled peers help children master challenging activities.
  5. To be effective, the adult's communication must be carefully coordinated with the child's current abilities.
  6. Children's planning and problem solving show more improvement when their partner is either an "expert" peer or an adult. C. Vygotsky and Education
  7. Vygotskian and Piagetian classrooms both have opportunities for active participation and acceptance of individual differences in cognitive development.
  8. Piagetian classrooms offer independent discovery, whereas Vygotskian environments promote assisted discovery.
  9. Vygotsky saw make-believe play as the ideal social context for fostering cognitive development. D. Evaluation of Vygotsky's Theory I. One challenge to Vygotsky's theory is that verbal communication may not be the only means through which children's thinking develops, or even the most important means, in some cultures.
  10. In all cultures, caregivers guide children's mastery of the practices of their community but the type of assistance varies. III. INFORMATION PROCESSING (pp. 230-235) A. Attention
  11. Preschoolers spend only short times involved in tasks, have difficulty focusing on details, and are easily distracted.
  12. By the end of early childhood, attention becomes more planful.
  13. When given detailed pictures or written materials, preschoolers fail to search thoroughly. B. Memory I. Preschoolers' recognition memory is remarkably good and becomes even more accurate by the end of early childhood.
  14. Young children's memory is much poorer for recall than recognition.
  15. Memory strategies are deliberate mental activities that improve the likelihood of remembering. a. Rehearsal involves repeating items over and over again. b. Organizing information is the intentional grouping together of items that are alike.
  16. Young children are not strategic memorizers because they see little need to remember information for its own sake and memory strategies tax children's limited working memories.
  17. Memory for Everyday Experiences a. Preschoolers, like adults, remember in terms of scripts-general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation. b. Scripts are a basic means through which children organize and interpret repeated events. C. The Young Child's Theory of Mind
  18. Metacognition is awareness of mental activities.
  19. We rely on understandings of our mental activities to interpret our own and others' behavior as well as to improve our performance on various tasks.
  1. Awareness of an Inner Mental Life a. Think, remember, and pretend are among the first verbs to appear in children's vocabularies. b. Between ages 3 and 4, children figure out that both beliefs and desires determine behavior. c. By age 4, children understand that belief and reality can differ-in other words, that people can hold false beliefs. d. Language and cognitive development permit children to reflect on thinking, helping to develop a theory of mind. e. Social experience also promotes understanding of the mind, but many researchers believe that to benefit from these experiences, children must be biologically ready to develop a theory of mind.
  2. Limitations of the Young Child's Theory of Mind a. Young children believe that all events must be directly observed to be known. b. They believe that mental activity stops when no obvious external cues exist to suggest that a person is thinking. D. Early Childhood Literacy
  3. Preschoolers understand a great deal about written language long before they learn to read or write in conventional ways.
  4. During the early period of literacy development, children view writing as a direct representation of objects and people.
  5. The more literacy-related experiences young children have in their everyday lives, the better prepared they are to tackle the complex tasks involved in becoming skilled readers and writers. E. Young Children's Mathematical Reasoning
  6. In the second year, children have a beginning grasp of ordinality or order relationships between quantities.
  7. The cardinality principle , grasped between the ages of 4 and 5, states that the last number in a counting sequence indicates the quantity of items in the set.
  8. Cross-cultural research suggests basic arithmetic knowledge emerges universally around the world; however, children acquire it at different rates depending on the availability of informal counting experiences. IV. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT (pp. 235-239) A. Tests for preschoolers sample a wide range of verbal and nonverbal cognitive abilities. B. Intelligence tests do not sample the full range of human abilities, and performance can be affected by cultural and situational factors. C. Test scores are important predictors of school achievement. D. Home Environment and Mental Development
  9. A special version of the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) assesses aspects of 3- to 6-year-olds' home lives that support intellectual growth.
  10. Preschoolers who develop well intellectually have parents who provide a home rich in toys and books, who are warm and affectionate, who stimulate language and academic knowledge, who make reasonable demands for mature behavior, and who solve conflicts with reasoning rather than force.
  11. The home plays a major role in the generally poorer intellectual performance of low- SES children in comparison to their higher-SES peers. E. Preschool and Child Care
  12. Currently, 64 percent of American preschool-age children have mothers who are employed.
  13. Preschool refers to programs with planned educational experiences aimed at enhancing development. In contrast, child care identifies a variety of arrangements for supervising children of employed parents.

C. Conversation l. Pragmatics is the practical, social side of language that is concerned with how to engage in effective and appropriate communication with others.

  1. At the beginning of early childhood in face-to-face interactions, children take turns, respond appropriately to their partners' remarks, and maintain a topic over time.
  2. Preschoolers' speech appears less mature in highly demanding situations in which they cannot see their listeners' reactions or rely on conversational aids, such as gestures and objects to talk about. D. Supporting Language Learning in Early Childhood l. Opportunities for conversational give-and-take with adults are consistently related to general measures of language progress.
  3. Sensitive, caring adults give helpful, explicit feedback and do not overcorrect a child's language mistakes.
  4. Expansions are adult responses that elaborate on a child's utterance, thereby increasing its complexity.
  5. Recasts are responses that restructure children's incorrect speech into a more mature form.