Language Analysis: Persuasive Techniques and Tone in Texts, Exams of English Language

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Part 2: Language Analysis

(Analysing how other people use language to express their

point of view)

1. Attacks Attacks can attempt to belittle or embarrass or just plain insult an opponent. The idea is that the weaker you can make your opposition appear, the stronger you and your contention will appear. Example: That’s the sort of suggestion I’d expect from a nose-in-the-air toff like Turnbull.
2. Colloquial Language Colloquial (slang) language can be used in different ways. It can set the writer up as knowledgeable, on the inside of a social group. A writer may also use slang in a sarcastic manner, to attack an opponent or mock an argument. It may also be used to appeal to a reader’s own sense of cultural identity, or reinforce a writer’s overall tone. Example: She’s a top sheila that Jessica Rowe. Channel Nine are mad to give her the boot.
3. Emotive Appeals Like many persuasive techniques, emotive appeals aim to engage people’s feelings, not logic or reason. If a writer can manipulate a reader to feel a certain way, that reader should be more likely to agree with the writer’s overall contention. Example 1: Soon we will see civilians lying dead in our own streets if we do not act against terrorism. (Appeals to fear) Example 2: In our society today there are people living without food or adequate shelter. Such basics of life can be provided if those of us who can afford to, give to organisations such as the Salvation Army, to help those unable to help themselves. (Appeals to compassion)
4. Inclusive language Inclusive language aims to directly address the reader, either personally or as a member of a shared group. This involves using such words as us, we, you, our. Example: It is time for us to show our belief in the value of mateship and give generously to the Good Friday Appeal.
   5. Rhetorical question A rhetorical question is one in which the answer is so obvious it is not required. The idea here is not to receive an answer, merely to reinforce a point. Example: Should footballers be treated as above the law?
   6. Exaggeration A writer may describe a situation in forceful, overblown language in order to make the issue seem more important or urgent than it may otherwise be considered. Exaggerating the scale of an issue can draw an emotional response from a reader. Example: Councils are losing the war against vandals (labelling it as a war makes the issue seem much more serious).
   7. Repetition Repeating a single word or phrase a number of times for emphasis. Example: We will all suffer for years to come unless we stop this government, stop them in the workplace, stop them in the polls, and stop them on election day.
   8. Evidence. There are three main types of evidence: Anecdotal; Expert Opinion and Statistical Anecdotal evidence An anecdote is a tale involving real life events, a true story. Such stories can be used by writers as evidence to back their claims. To support a contention, and to make themselves appear more credible, writers often use personal anecdotes. Example: I can tell you that, as a single mother of two, I received very little in the way of financial support during my attempts to return to fulltime work. Expert opinion________________ To make a writer’s position seem more credible, they may quote the opinions of experts that correspond with their own. As in a court case, experts are often called on to make one side seem stronger and more believable. Example: My stand on the issue of exposed underwear is supported by fashion designer Ruby Reed, who recently stated: “Anyone whose underwear is exposed due to low slung jeans should be punished as forcefully as possible.” Statistics_____________________ Like any form of evidence, statistics can be used to make an argument seem more conclusive, a writer’s opinion more valid. Often statistics are used that are out of context, or from unreliable sources. As the saying goes, “There are lies, damned lies, and statistics.” Example: A recent survey found that 90% of students favoured no school uniforms at all.
      9. Generalisation. This is a general statement about a group which applies to all of them rather than anyone in particular. Writers use this to add impact to arguments. Example: Modern teenagers fear the future.
      10. Analogy. A comparison between two ideas in which a conclusion is drawn about one from the similarity it has to the other. Analogies are useful to illustrate a difficult concept. Example: Like a car our bodies need maintenance and fuel in order to run well. It is important to eat a nutritious diet and get regular exercise.
      11. Bias. Bias is a prejudiced view, which generally ignores the opposing view. Biased language characteristically attempts to force the reader into judging an issue without knowing or considering all of the facts. Example: “ People who drive cars are selfishly polluting the environment with their exhaust fumes, not to mention their complete lack of regard for any person on a bicycle who gets in their way!” (Written by a cyclist)
      12. Pictorial support. Photographs, cartoons, bold headlines and/or engaging graphics are used to focus the reader’s attention on a particular aspect of the text, to reinforce the writer’s contention. Example: An article about the violence in the city of Melbourne accompanied by a photo of several people involved in a fight.

Persuasive devices- a brief overview.

Like appeals to tradition, this kind of rhetoric often implies a 'shared' set of values. They may pertain to members of a local or school community, a town, or any area restricted in size and number. “Residents of our ‘tidy town’ can feel justifiably proud of its achievements, and need no advice from outsiders as to how we

should run our festival.”

SAMPLE ANALYSIS:

Using the inclusive term 'our' in reference to the

town and its festival, the mayor sought to create

a sense of outrage in his audience. Referring to

those who have offered the town some advice on

how to run its festival, he characterised them as

'outsiders'. Thus he appealed to the parochial

feelings of the audience that ‘their'

town was being criticised by foreign elements.

APPEALS TO PAROCHIAL BELIEF / COMMUNITY. Such appeals rely upon a shared sense of values regarding one's country, its past, and the need to defend it at all costs. Politicians can use them in quite devious and manipulative ways to coerce their audience into agreeing with a certain policy. No one likes to be thought of as 'unpatriotic'. “All freedom-loving Australians, those with a true love for their country and its proud traditions, will support this latest military initiative by the government.” SAMPLE ANALYSIS:

Arguing in favour of our military intervention in Afghanistan, the Prime Minister made an unashamed appeal to

all freedom-loving Australians' with a true love for their country to support the government's military

intervention. Such a blatant appeal to our patriotic fervor (with its rather sinister implication that those who

oppose him are somehow unpatriotic) would, no doubt, be well received by the majority of his television

audience.

There are many other kinds of appeals with which you should be familiar. They include:

• appeals to common sense^ (the rational approach would be to ..')
• appeals to fair play^ ('our sense of compassion and decency demands that...')
• appeals to fear^ ('our traditional way of life is under threat if.......')
• appeals to self-interest^ ('do the ratepayers wish to see their money spent in this fashion?')
• appeals to guilt and shame^ ('how can we stand by and see young lives wasted ...?')
• appeals to family values^ ('the traditional family unit has always protected ....') APPEALS TO PATRIOTISM As the title suggests, such appeals are designed to win over an audience by appealing to its sympathetic side. They may often involve the use of emotive and exaggerated language to enhance their appeal. “How can poor teachers, overworked and under-resourced, be expected to take on this latest curriculum initiative? It's simply heartless of the government even to propose such a scheme.” SAMPLE ANALYSIS:

Brian Chalker, President of the Teachers'

Association, appeals to the sympathies of the school

board, arguing that 'overworked' teachers cannot

possibly accept this latest curriculum 'initiative'.

Contrasting the schemes of a 'heartless' government

with the demands on 'poor' teachers, he seeks to

highlight the victim status of his fellow

professionals and spare them any extra workload.

APPEALS TO SYMPATHY

This kind of approach attacks the 'man', rather than seeking to address the argument. It is commonly employed by politicians and can be a quite successful diversionary tactic. You may have come across this persuasive technique before in clear thinking, and therefore will find it a little easier to identify. The skill here, however, is to identify the purpose of the attack rather than the attack itsetf. By deriding the opposing speaker, rather than addressing her question, our unnamed politician is seeking to avoid answering the question. “The honourable member is nothing other than a criminal thug whose scurritous question is not worthy of reply.”

• What might the effect of this technique be on a given audience?
• Can you think of other ways in which attacking the person' might be a useful rhetorical ploy? SAMPLE ANALYSIS:

Seeking to divert attention from the question on

notice, the Premier, instead, chose to attack the

leader of the opposition for his supposed lack of

integrity. Although greeted with howls of support

from his own side, it is doubtful whether such a

personal attack did much to enhance his own

standing with the community.

ATTACKING THE PERSON This is the kind of language designed to appeal to our feelings, rather than to the more rational side to our nature. It has its place in the language of rhetoric and is no longer automatically condemned, as it may have been in days past. However, in the absence of any rational argument, it can be thin and unconvincing. “The flying foxes are simply poor defenceless creatures, destined to be culled in a heartless campaign of destruction by the department of parks and the environment.” SAMPLE ANALYSIS:

In her letter to The Age, animal rights activist Terese Succar, makes a passionate appeal to "her readers to resist all

efforts to cull flying foxes from our Botanical gardens. They are simply 'poor defenceless creatures', according to

Succar- lt is a heartless campaign being waged against them. Such emotive language, playing upon our

sensibilities and our wish to be merciful to all helpless creatures, is most effective. Without needing to address

more substantive issues of flying fox numbers and their impact on the gardens, Succar succeeds in painting the

parks and the environment in a very bad light indeed.

EMOTIVE LANGUAGE The correct name for the use of exaggeration is hyperbole. This technique is commonplace in argument and often makes for interesting or even humorous reading. Often, however, it also involves conscious distortion of the situation or event being described. The trick is to recognise hyperbole when you see it, and not to simply refer to it as 'colourful language', instead you should try to identity exactly how the exaggeration works and why the writer has chosen to do it in a particular way. “Victoria is teetering on the brink of disaster. Unless we can rein in government debt, our children and our children's children will be forever paying the bill.” One of the most common devices used by people from all walks of life. Unless exposed to scrutiny, they can prove quite effective. “All Australians Love their sport.” SAMPLE ANALYSIS;

In his speech, supporting increased payments to the

AiS, the Prime Minister argued that 'All Australians

love their sport'. This kind of generalisatron. offered

without any supporting evidence, was clearly

designed to lull his audience into accepting a quite

radical increase in funding at a time of supposed

budgetary 'restraint'.

EXAGGERATED LANGUAGE GENERALISATIONS

Satire, as you are probably aware is the art of creating humour out of what was originally intended to be serious. “In order to reduce the number of refugees entering Australia the federal government is now offering 'mystery flights' to all refugees upon their arrival. SAMPLE ANALYSIS:

The satirical reference to 'mystery flights', and the

notion that all refugees will be speedily shipped off

to destinations unknown, plays upon popular

perceptions of a cruel and heartless government.

Like the use of jargon, statistics can be cited in ways designed to baffle or confuse an audience. One must look very carefully at the authority of the speaker, his or her knowledge in this area, and the way in which they are being applied. Long term consumption of saturated fat can increase your risk of heart disease by up to 50%. SAMPLE ANALYSIS: The recent Olio margarine advertisement sought to compare its low choiestero' product with butter. Saturated fat in the diet can increase 'your' risk of heart disease by '50%', warned the advertisement. For a nation worried by an epidemic of heart disease, such a simplistic use of 'scientific' data could be most effective in selling a given product. SATIRE Although not strictly the focus of your analysis, you should still pay careful attention to the placement of photographs and graphics both within and outside the body of the text. Photographs and graphics which accompany newspaper articles are not placed there simply to fill in the gaps between columns. They have a specific purpose, and in a persuasive piece the role of the photograph or graphic is to contribute to the overall effect. Dont forget the innocuous looking pictures of the authors that often accompany opinion columns in the papers. How do you think these could work to the writer's benefit? PHOTOGRAPHS AND GRAPHICS An anecdote is a kind of story and can be a highly effective rhetorical devices. Usually a writer or speaker will draw upon evidence from personal experience, or from people that he or she has met. I know many people who enjoy the odd flutter at the pokies. Not one of them is addicted to gambling. SAMPLE ANALYSIS: Seeking to trivialise the seriousness of the gambling situation in Victoria, a spokesperson for the hotel industry, Tania Parisi, referred in a rather light-hearted fashion to the 'many people' she knew who enjoyed the 'odd flutter at the pokies'. Such reliance on anecdotal information was an effective counterweight to the tairiy dry statistical arguments presented by the opponents of legalised gambling. ANECDOTES STATISTICS

Positive Words Amiable Consoling Friendly Playful Amused Content Happy Pleasant Appreciative Dreamy Hopeful Proud Authoritative Ecstatic Impassioned Relaxed Benevolent Elated Jovial Reverent Brave Elevated Joyful Romantic Calm Encouraging Jubilant Soothing Cheerful Energetic Lighthearted Surprised Cheery Enthusiastic Loving Sweet Compassionate Excited Optimistic Sympathetic Complimentary Exuberant Passionate Vibrant Confident Fanciful Peaceful Whimsical Negative Words Accusing Choleric Furious Quarrelsome Aggravated Coarse Harsh Shameful Agitated Cold Haughty Smooth Angry Condemnatory Hateful Snooty Apathetic Condescending Hurtful Superficial Arrogant Contradictory Indignant Surly Artificial Critical Inflammatory Testy Audacious Desperate Insulting Threatening Belligerent Disappointed Irritated Tired Bitter Disgruntled Manipulative Uninterested Boring Disgusted Obnoxious Wrathful Brash Disinterested Outraged Childish Facetious Passive Humor-Irony-Sarcasm Words Amused Droll Mock-heroic Sardonic Bantering Facetious Mocking Satiric Bitter Flippant Mock-serious Scornful Caustic Giddy Patronizing Sharp Comical Humorous Pompous Silly Condescending Insolent Quizzical Taunting Contemptuous Ironic Ribald Teasing Critical Irreverent Ridiculing Whimsical Cynical Joking Sad Wry Disdainful Malicious Sarcastic Neutral Words Admonitory Dramatic Intimae Questioning Allusive Earnest Judgmental Reflective Apathetic Expectant Learned Reminiscent Authoritative Factual Loud Resigned Baffled Fervent Lyrical Restrained Callous Formal Matter-of-fact Seductive Candid Forthright Meditative Sentimental Ceremonial Frivolous Nostalgic Serious Clinical Haughty Objective Shocking Consoling Histrionic Obsequious Sincere Contemplative Humble Patriotic Unemotional Conventional Incredulous Persuasive Urgent Detached Informative Pleading Vexed Didactic Inquisitive Pretentious Wistful Disbelieving Instructive Provocative Zealous Sorrow-Fear-Worry Words Aggravated Embarrassed Morose Resigned Agitated Fearful Mournful Sad Anxious Foreboding Nervous Serious Apologetic Gloomy Numb Sober Apprehensive Grave Ominous Solemn Concerned Hollow Paranoid Sombre Confused Hopeless Pessimistic Staid Dejected Horrific Pitiful Upset Depressed Horror Poignant Despairing Melancholy Regretful Disturbed Miserable Remorseful Words to describe tone.

More words to describe tone. Deceptive: artful, cunning, dishonest, equivocal, fraudulent, glib. Difficult: defiant, irascible, provocative, rebellious. Discontented: angst-ridden, alienated, disillusioned. Disloyal: defiant, faithless, seditious, traitorous. Dogmatic: arrogant, emphatic, uncompromising, intolerantl, authoritative. Domineering: opinionated, officious, truculent. Downtrodden: oppressed, persecuted, subservient, submissive. Generous: benevolent, altruistic, kindhearted, magnanimous. Good: dutiful, honourable, magnanimous, moral, obedient, virtuous. Gullible: credulous, deceived, duped, manipulated. Flattering: ingratiating, insincere, obsequious, smooth-tongued, unctuous. Happy: content, cheerful, ecstatic, exhilarated, jubilant. Heartless: brutal, catlous, cold-blooded, pitiless. Hypocritical: two-faced, treacherous, perfidious, sanctimonious. Idealistic: optimistic, Utopian, romantic, visionary. Ignorant: unaware, uneducated, unintetligent, unenlightened. Immoral: corrupt, depraved,malevolent, malicious, iniquitous. Impatient: abrupt, brysque, curt, restive, rash. Impetuous: impulsive, spontaneous, rash, reckless. Intelligent: articulate, astute, perceptive, ingenious. Interesting: captivating, compelling, fascinating, intriguing. Just: dispassionate, ethical, fair-minded, unprejudiced. Loyal: devoted, faithful, obedient, steadfast, trustworthy. Malleable: adaptable, pliabfe, flexible. Malevolent: draconian, malicious, venomous, vindictive. Manipulative: artful, calculating, cunning, scheming, shrewd.

More words to describe tone. Materialistic: acquisitive, selfish, commercial, opportunist, secular, worldly. Mean: churlish, parsimonious, stinting, uncharitable. Merciless: cruel, inhumane, ruthless, unforgiving. Militant: defiant, hostile, warlike. Moody: temperamental, volatile, petulant, changeable. Moral: decent, ethical, honourable, principled, scrupulous. Particular: fussy, fastidioiis, meticulous, punctilious. Political: expedient, cunning, designing, machiavellian. Pragmatic: practical, comrnonsensical, expedient, hard-headed, realistic. Racist: (person): bigot, chauvinist, dogmatist, supremacist, zealot. Racist: (attitudes and behaviour): biased, bigoted, discriminatory, prejudiced, intolerant, xenophobic. Religious: devout, pious, faithful, spiritual. Resilient: ebullient, irrepressible, optimistic, robust. Sanctimonious: self-righteous, unctuous. Self-interested: seif-centred, self-focused, hedonistic, narcissistic, self- indulgent. Sinful: corrupt, immoral, profligate, sacrilegious, ungodly. Unbiased: broad-minded, egalitarian, judicial, impartial, objective, tolerant. Unhappy: despondent, disconsolate, dispirited, forlorn, melancholy. Unjust: discriminatory, illegal, iniquitous, partial, prejudiced. Wicked: depraved, diabolical, fiendish, heinous, odious. Wise: sagacious, circumspect, astute.

EFFECTIVELY ANALYSING LANGUAGE

Analytical language makes use of exact and specific verbs, adverbs and adjectives to

describe what is happening in the text. You can see in the example below how careful choice

of particular words contributes to a strong analytical focus for the statement. Note the

exact and specific language used in the following statement.

1. ‘Initially’ shows the writer followed the debate over time.

2. ‘Reports’ suggests the study of many texts and a grasp of the issue.

3. ‘Generated’ - a powerful verb suggesting grasp of issue and debate.

4. Succinctly states the issue. ‘Drastic’ suggests knowledge of legislation.

5. ‘Australia’s flagging organ donation rate’ - Author names a complex problem in five

words.

6. ‘Resuscitate’ - Pun - appropriate to context of the issue.

7. Overall, the statement suggests understanding of the issue and knowledge of the

language used.

What aspect of language use do the statements below analyse? Which words and

phrases in the statement tell you this?

“Initially, the reports and readers’ responses generated brief, at times emotionally charged, debate on whether or not drastic legislation was necessary to resuscitate Australia’s flagging organ donation rate.” “The use of violent emotional language is designed to frighten the audience and convince readers that the government is dangerous” “Consequently, it is difficult for the reader to refute the arguments advanced in the editorial” “ The most trenchant attack on the medical profession was that by Jason Kindleford whose whole piece, in high contrast to others, was engineered to harness emotions and, through the use of language designed to exclude readers from judging for themselves, garner deep sympathy for abused children.” “The iconic value of a large picture of a mother and child is that it initially draws the reader’s attention to the article an visually summarises the write’s contention.”

EFFECTIVELY ANALYSING LANGUAGE

Consider these examples from students’ work.

How effective are they as analytical comments on the use of language?

In the same way, use exact words and phrases to identify and comment on the use of

language in your set of texts.

“During the segment, outrageous accusations by RSL president Bruce Ruxton that the Cabinet is composed of ‘fairies’ are supposed to discourage acceptance of the government’s decision, but such opiniated verbosity could cause the audience to question his expertise.” “From the opening paragraph, the reader is commanded to ‘look’ at the picture which most would inevitably do. What we find is a clear, boxed photograph of Daniel, his bruised, yet beautiful face hiding his pain. On the lower half of the page, there are two unfocused photographs of Daniel’s sunglassed mother and stepfather. In both cases, the face is blurred and eye contact lost, alienating the reader and causing Daniel’s sharply focused features to stand out in contrast.” “She raises many compelling arguments, highlighting each with a ‘bullet’. Her barrage of facts and statistics are enlivened with the occasional rhetorical question: “Is $4000 to save a life too expensice?”, and short, dramatic statements: “Cars are statistically safer than swimming pools!” Be the repeated use of “we” - “We need to act now” - she invites the reader to concur with her view.”

EFFECTIVELY ANALYSING LANGUAGE Working through an Analysis of a Cartoon LEVEL ONELEVEL ONE Visuals Words (not all cartoons include words)

1. List the objects / people you see in the cartoon. 1.Identify the cartoon caption and/or title 2.Locate three words or phrases use by the cartoonist to identify objects or people within the cartoon. 3.Record any important dates or numbers that appear in the cartoon. LEVEL TWOLEVEL TWO Visuals Words (not all cartoons include words) 2.Which of the objects on your list are symbols? 3.What do you think each symbol means?
2. Which words or phrases in the cartoon appear to be most significant? Why do you think so?
3. List the adjectives that describe the emotions portrayed in the cartoon. LEVEL THREE A. Describe the action taking place in the cartoon. B. Explain how the words in the cartoon clarfiy symbols. C. Explain the message of the cartoon. D. What special interest groups would agree / disagree with the cartoon’s message? Why?

Once you’ve identified the persuasive techniques that the cartoonist used, ask

yourself these questions:

• What issue is this political cartoon about?
• What do you think is the cartoonist’s opinion on this issue?
• What other opinion can you imagine another person having on this issue?
• Did you find this cartoon persuasive? Why or why not?
• What other techniques could the cartoonist have used to make this cartoon more

persuasive?

Putting your analytical essay together ...

TRAINING AND PREPARATION: 1: WHAT is the issue? 2: WHAT are the IMPLICATIONS of the issue? 3: WHO are the stakeholders or parties involved? 4: WHEN was this piece written? Is it in response to other pieces? 5: WHO is the writer? DOES the writer have a vested interest in this issue? DOES the author’s identity affect his / her viewpoint? 6: WHAT is the writer’s PURPOSE? What is their POINT OF VIEW? 7: WHO is the target audience?

Key questions for language analysis

HITTING A HOME RUN:

8. What persuasive techniques has the writer used and why has he or she chosen those particular techniques?
9. How does the writer want to position us on this issue?
10. How do the persuasive techniques used reflect this?

Step by Step guide: Annotating and Analysing Articles

PHASE 1: FIRST READING Step 1: Read the whole article! Step 2: After your reading, make some brief notes on use of TONE , the ISSUE , the EVENTS leading up to the issue and the writer’s CONTENTION. Step 3: Write down the intended AUDIENCE and whether the writer is mainly appealing to our COGNITIVE behaviour (our thoughts) or EMOTIONAL behaviour (our feelings) or perhaps it is both. Step 4: Highlight any key STRUCTURAL FEATURES – is the article divided into key sections or marked by any significant shifts in tone? Are ideas repeated? Step 5: Take note of any VISUAL LANGUAGE that is used in the article. Why has it been included, how does it assist in getting the contention across? PHASE 2: SECOND READING Step 1: Read the article again, this time highlighting any LANGUAGE FEATURES that strike you as being interesting, unusual, obviously persuasive or important. Step 2: In the margins around the article, make notes next to the language features you have identified. If you can, IDENTIFY the TECHNIQUES used or simply DESCRIBE the language used. Try to use METALANGUAGE (language about language) to describe what you are reading. Step 3: Make notes in the margins about the INTENDED EFFECT of these language features. How are they being used to manipulate the readers thoughts or emotions? Be SPECIFIC about how it makes readers feel or think about the people, events, situations or circumstances that are described. Step 4: Look for PATTERNS in the use of persuasive language. Use visual cues (arrows, circles, underlines, colour-coding) to show relationships between (compare, contrast, cause and effect etc ) or repeated use of similar techniques or techniques that can be grouped together that have a similar intended effect.