Plan Implementation and Management, Assignments of Education Planning And Management

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Name : Arshad Ashiq

Class : B.Ed (1½ Year)

Roll No. : CE

Code : 8617

Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

Assignment No. 2

Plan Implementation and Management

SEMESTER AUT 2021

Q.1Define the concept of Catchment Area. Discuss the process of school

mapping in educational planning.

THE CATCHMENT AREA

What is the Meaning of This Term?

A catchment is the geographical area served by a school. In order to delineate it, pinpoint pupils homes and outline the smallest area covering all of them. Two possible extreme cases may be mentioned, namely: (a) The case of single school for the entire community providing very specialized training, for instance, repair and servicing of watches. Such a school’s catchment area will be the whole of the community; and (b) The case of a nursery and primary school, for instance for the children of workers maintaining a hydro-electric power station dam. Here, the catchment area embraces the dwelling houses in the neighbour hood of the dam. In either case, the catchment area is defined by what is expected of the school, namely ‘serving such and such category of people’ or providing special training. As a rule, however, the vast majority of schools are supposed to be fulfilling the same function, for instance, providing basic education for children from 6 to 12. In this instance, the school’s catchment area is defined by the maximum acceptable distance a child can travel between home and school, the size of the school, the density of schoolage population; this is particularly true of rural areas.

The Catchment Area: Theoretical Presentation

(a) A priority, the catchment area of a school to be reached on foot is a circle whose radius is the maximum distance from home to school. The number of children for schooling may be calculated by means of the formula: E = 4 2 x 22 \ 7 x d Where ‘d’ is school age population density and r is the radius of the circle, i.e. the maximum distance children can travel. When the school map for County Sligo in Ireland was being elaborated, it was suggested that a rule be used to estimate the theoretical catchment area of a school in the light of the distance to be covered, and population density. For example, with a maximum distance of 3 kms, to be covered, the catchment area will be 28.3 sq km; if the density of school age population is 3 inhabitants per square kilometer the school’s enrollment will be maximum of 85 pupils. (b) However, circular catchment areas have one major disadvantage. For network of schools there are two possible alternatives, as figure -1 shows:

vii. Preparing map with rationale for decisions made and priorities determined i.e. showing on the map as to why you have decided to open or close what number schools in which parts and what contents have to be imparted through what techniques etc. viii. Follow up of the whole exercise to determine as to what extent the reallocation of educational facilities has been successful or otherwise.

Q.2 Discuss the role of pressure groups while making educational

decisions for rural areas of Pakistan. Give different strategies to

overcome these pressures for rational decision making as educational

manager.

Pressure Group and Decision–Making

Pressure groups are groups of human beings identifiable by their like – mindedness and community of interests and their desire to act effectively in modulating the affairs of the society or organizations to which they belong. "Whether ideologically inspired or driven by a selfish motive force, whether appearing as a subtle current of opinion or in the form of mob hysteria, the pressure groups constitute a force to be reckoned in the process of decision - making", is the opinion of an administrator. Today, it is hard to imagine any system of decision - making in which the element of pressure groups would be wholly excluded. On the other hand, it would be true to say that ever since man learned to make decisions, he has not made one without some kind of pressure operating upon him. This is quite understandable. After all decisions are not made in vacuum they are made for human beings by human beings in a social background with a view to regulate human affairs. If a pastoral society becomes more complex, human awareness improves and the man gets more deeply intertwined with social events around him, the pressure groups then not only get multiplied but also get individually more powerful. When we talk of pressure groups, it is generally in a derogatory sense although there is no reason why it should necessarily be so. As a matter of fact, they can play a positive role as well as a negative one. For one thing, they can contribute in exposing all the facets of a problem and placing some concrete alternative before the decision - maker. Decision - maker is not a computer or an automatic machine. Machine has got no sentiments, no greed, fear, sympathy and anticipations etc; while human decision – maker has all of these. But the function, both of them perform, is somewhat identical. Just as a, computer must be fed with data before we get a result; the decision - maker must also receive an insight into divergent points of view supplied by the pressure groups before well rounded decision could be expected.

Objectives of the Pressure Groups

The pressure groups can have three objectives, which are:

(1) To help the decision - maker in taking a correct decision.

(2) To save the decision - maker from taking a bad decision.

(3) To cause withdrawal of bad decision.

They can also play a negative role and when doing so, there objectives are just converse of what is positive objective. While discussing the objectives of pressure groups, it would be useful to identify some of the pressure groups; it would be useful to identify some of the pressure groups operating in educational situations. (i) Pressure groups within the institutions They are far more important than outside groups they are strong enough where unity of workers obstruct the course of smooth decision - making. Often they have outside links and without taking them into consideration any decision can be effective. (ii) Associations and unions: The employees and workers of a department are allowed to form their associations and unions. The objective of these associations is generally to protect the rights of the workers and assure them a fair deal. The interests do not necessarily coincide. Often, there is a friction between the leaders and the decision - makers. In such conditions, the unions are unduly prone to exercising pressure in favor of individuals rather than national goals. (iii) Politicians: As the representatives of the people, the politicians deserve due respect. However, it is not an uncommon sight to see them visiting administrators for recommending or opposing a teacher, whom they hardly know. When facts are candidly explained to them their vehemence does not subside and they show no readiness to understand the rules, regulations and difficulties of decision - maker and they insist upon-their immediate demand. In very few cases, however, it must be stated that where administrators are slack or inattentive, they have saved some persons from injustice and red tapeism and nepotism. On the national level the politics plays a vital role in decision - making. Often, in the presence of vested interests, of strong political groups, many national schemes are reshaped, curtailed and amended or abolished to suit their purposes and personal benefits. (iv) Press: Press is the voice of the people. The press owned by powerful groups, whether commercial, business, can have a strong influence on decision - making. In societies where press is free and is supported to reflect the feelings of the masses, the impact is really spectacular. In less free societies, the decision - making authorities and the press work side by side even hand in hand. In such a milieu, the press is expected to pave the way for a decision that has already been decided to be taken and afterwards pursue the task of justifying the decision before public. One can name many other pressure groups operating in educational spheres.

The use of behavior science techniques in decision - making is an extremely useful approach. Its major contributions are to provide information on and insight into decision making process. The contribution of behavior science can be summarized best by citing how specific behavioral findings enter into decision-making methodology. One such concept is group decision - making as advocated by Rtber P. Blake and Jane S. Mouton in "Group Dynamics. Key to Decision Making!. (3:109). In this word they illustrate that group participation is necessary for decision making. Another example is that behavior science has entered directly into decision process with regard to selection. Psychological tests have in many instances replaced judgment in the selection of applicants. To the extent of making final decisions psychological tests play the role of basic determinant. In all such examples the behavioral techniques are designed to provide insight and information rather than actual analysis and solve the specific problem. With the improvement, anyhow, these techniques are destined to play a more important role in contemporary decision - making process.

Heuristic Approaches

According to Gore, it is an alternative to rational decision-making. It allows a strategy to be reached when a preferred path is blocked (11:130). In other words, heuristic approach allows decision maker to consider less rational paths. There are three basic problem solving steps in this approach as described by Hutchison (14:126). The first step classifies the problem and identifies whether it can be solved with a given routine. Assuming no solutions occurs at this point there is then a breakdown of major problem into sub —problems. In the third step again problem solving techniques are applied to sub—problem. If there is no solution to a sub-problem according to routine, then there is continuing break down of large problems into smaller problems and routines are applied until the solution is reached.

Economic and Financial Techniques

Economic theories and analysis of the situation in their light are very useful in some cases of decision - making. In the study of costs and profits, economists have developed a frame - work which though not always directly applicable to real situation, does provide a means for reviewing the factors hearing upon economically oriented decisions, This approach depends upon three factors: costs, outputs and benefits or profits, and allows those routes which call for maximum benefits specifically the criteria of absolute profit or the rate of return on invested capital.

Q.3 Discuss various elements and factors which affect the decision

making. How decision making in education system can be more

rational?

ELEMENTS OF DECISION–MAKING

To achieve the goals systematically and effectively, it is desirable to develop a clear understanding of the elements affecting the decision. In a very general sense decision making covers almost every phase of human activity. If one reaches far enough he could bring societal cultural, economic and political variables in decision making. The possible selection of these approaches is as under (14:108-111).

Goals

Goals determination is an important process and requires a careful consideration. Goals to be served include personal, institutional, professional and national etc. since personal goals often conflict with those of the others, therefore, what successful decision making process calls is the unity of objectives or harmony of goals. When conflicts exist, then the matter of emphasis and the philosophy of the society comes in. but in all situations the decision maker must have a clear understanding of the goals and objectives.

Information

Information is the basic element in decision - making. The quality and the quantity of information both play an important role. Wrong and incomplete information may mislead, while sound and complete information ensures and leads to correct decision. The information should always be reviewed carefully and confirmed before integrating into decision - making process.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis or problem recognition is an important element. It brings with what Newman called "Felt Difficulty" or a 'sense of trouble' (21:216) and then attempts to separate causes from symptoms. Problem recognition tries to identify the relative norms and use these deviations to detect the strategic factors influencing the decision. It is a common human failing to proceed to reach solution without really defining the problem. But it must be remembered that a systematic and effective diagnosis will play definitely an important role.

Alternatives

The fourth basic element of the decision process is creation and structuring of alternative solutions. Creating alternatives brings up the concept of individual and group creativity. Thought an individual's inherent creativity probably cannot be improved, recent studies have shown that better utilization of existing levels of creativity can be obtained (14:109). Methods and techniques can be developed, which can be structured by simple rational listing of the factors influencing the problem.

State of Nature

States of nature have a basic influence on the decision process. Decisions are made under conditions of complete certainly, complete uncertainty or some point between these two boundaries. Techniques and methods used to solve problems differ according to where the

A school administrator's decision to adjust the periods of a teacher on leave is a routine work. Selection of visual aids for classroom use affects several areas. Having an un tested assistant with little experience, involves a limited risk and finally transferring school teachers who are thought to be unfit by the influential members of the community may bring massive uncertainties. Among the myriads of decisions which an educational manager makes every day, there are a few which are more important than others because they have the characteristic of guiding later decisions as well as decisions made by others. These big decisions which provide a framework within which others are to make their decisions are known as policies. For example: A parent applies to the manager for exemption of his child from school fees due to his low income and the manager allows it. The manager, while allowing it, gives instruction that children of all parents under similar circumstances be exempted likewise. i. Managers in the higher echelons of administration are conscious of the fact that their decisions could become policies. So when they have no intention of allowing them to be policies they would specify clearly that the particular decision shall only be a single shot decision. They expressions commonly in use are it shall, however, not be a precedent" and "it shall be without prejudice". ii. Policies are very important for the working of an organization. They make the action of each member of an organization in a given set of circumstances more predictable to other members. They guide action and enable decisions made by different members of an organization to follow a common path. In view of these uses of policies, decisions which give rise to policies are made with greater care and circumspection. Strategies are also a kind of decisions or, sometimes, a better of related decisions designed to meet unpredictable contingencies or resistances and obstructions. A strategy, like a policy governs or guides decisions made by different members of an organization. A minister of education, determined to get qualified teachers to contribute to rural education, may decide that promotion to higher grades requires a certain number of years of service in a rural school. He calls it "My strategy to counteract the resistance of qualified teachers who refuse to work outside urban areas. A strategy has a time dimension. It can remain operative only under circumstances under which it was designed. When the circumstances change, the strategy too has to be modified to meet the new contingencies, resistances or obstructions. A particular contingency under which strategies are designed is when the available information is too fragmentary 'and insufficient to formulate a policy. Monahan has categorized the educational decisions of substance and decisions of procedure. Decisions of substance are primarily concerned with the aims, purposes, content, emphases and tendencies of education programmes. Where and what school buildings should be constructed and how should they be equipped? Who should be the administrators and other staff members? What- should be the content and organization of the curriculum? These and other many similar

decisions are the decisions of substance. The decisions of procedure are concerned with the modes of operation which will bring about prior basis of substance, for example, how the work of the teachers has to be supervised and monitored and how the institutional activities have to be made more effective and decisions reliable procedure. It can safely by say that some decisions are concerned with ends other are concerned with means.

Q.4 Budget is a statement of future expenditures and receipts f funds

critically analyze this statement. Also prepare annual budget for

secondary school.

Following the decision to initiate a capital acquisition program, funding mechanisms should be explored. This often involves some form of bonded indebtedness; however, building programs may be funded with accumulated operating funds. Alternatively, capital leases and installment payments may be used. In situations in which bond financing is used, the bond initiative must be reviewed and approved by the governing board before it is placed on the ballot. The size of the bond initiative for a particular program may be determined by estimates of aggregate costs generated during the planning process and may not include detailed project budgets until funding has been secured. However, depending on the local political environment, bond initiatives may require detailed cost estimates that specifically identify the projects to be funded from the proceeds before the bond issue can be placed on the ballot. Financial advisers and bond attorneys may be consulted on the size, applicable tax regulations, marketing, and selling of bond issues. Other considerations include tax rate limitations or debt ceilings that may affect the amount of bonded debt that can be undertaken. When funding has been secured, detailed project budgets should be developed. Individual budgets covering the life of each project are necessary for the proper monitoring of the related activity. Although cost estimates developed during the planning process may be used to determine the size of the bond initiative, actual project budgets must contain more detailed information. Architects, contractors, and staff should be involved in budget preparation, and it will be necessary to identify factors such as shifts in student populations, additional facility or site requirements, and so on, which may cause significant differences between the actual project budget and the cost estimates developed during the planning process. Construction project budgets using a multiyear format should be reviewed periodically by administrators with regular reports provided to the board on the progress of each project. Bond attorneys and

against its expenses. In many instances, particularly for non-individuals, an annual budget is expanded to include a balance sheet and cash flow statement. Annual budgets are used by individuals, corporations, governments, and other types of organizations that need to keep track of financial activity. Annual budgets are considered to be balanced if projected expenditures are equal to projected revenues. It is in deficit if expenditures exceed revenues, and it is in surplus if revenues exceed expenditures.

Understanding an Annual Budget

Annual budgets can apply to either a fiscal or calendar year. These budgets help their creators to plan for the upcoming year and make the necessary adjustments to meet their financial goals. Annual budgets help individuals to better manage their money. For corporations, governments, and other organizations, annual budgets are critical and often mandated for planning purposes with respect to sources of income and necessary expenses— assets, liabilities, and equity required to support operations over the one-year period; and cash flows used for reinvestments, debt management, or discretionary purposes.

Q.5 Critically analyze the prevailing controlling system of educational

personnel in Pakistan. As a planner, suggest different measures for the

improvement of selection of suitable personnel.

Answer

Introduction It is mandated in the Constitution of Pakistan to provide free and compulsory education to all children between the ages of 5-16 years and enhance adult literacy. With the 18th constitutional amendment the concurrent list which comprised of 47 subjects was abolished and these subjects, including education, were transferred to federating units as a move towards provincial autonomy. The year 2015 is important in the context that it marks the deadline for the participants of Dakar declaration (Education For All [EFA] commitment) including Pakistan. Education related statistics coupled with Pakistan’s progress regarding education targets set in Vision 2030 and Pakistan’s lagging behind in achieving EFA targets and its Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) for education call for an analysis of the education system of Pakistan and to look into the issues and problems it is facing so that workable solutions could be recommended. What is Education System?

The system of education includes all institutions that are involved in delivering formal education (public and private, for-profit and nonprofit, onsite or virtual instruction) and their faculties, students, physical infrastructure, resources and rules. In a broader definition the system also includes the institutions that are directly involved in financing, managing, operating or regulating such institutions (like government ministries and regulatory bodies, central testing organizations, textbook boards and accreditation boards). The rules and regulations that guide the individual and institutional interactions within the set up are also part of the education system. Education system of Pakistan: The education system of Pakistan is comprised of 260,903 institutions and is facilitating 41,018,384 students with the help of 1,535,461 teachers. The system includes 180,846 public institutions and 80,057 private institutions. Hence 31% educational institutes are run by private sector while 69% are public institutes. Analysis of education system in Pakistan Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in the country by education policies at domestic level and getting involved into international commitments on education. In this regard national education policies are the visions which suggest strategies to increase literacy rate, capacity building, and enhance facilities in the schools and educational institutes. MDGs and EFA programmes are global commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of literacy. A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been little change in Pakistan’s schools since 2010, when the 18th Amendment enshrined education as a fundamental human right in the constitution. Problems of access, quality, infrastructure and inequality of opportunity, remain endemic. Issues A) MDGs and Pakistan Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging behind in achieving its MDGs of education. The MDGs have laid down two goals for education sector: Goal 2 : The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) and by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. By the year 2014 the enrolment statistics show an increase in the enrolment of students of the age of 3-16 year while dropout rate decreased. But the need for increasing enrolment of students remains high to achieve MDGs target. Punjab is leading province wise in net primary enrolment rate with 62% enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh province is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and primary enrolment rate in Balochistan is 45%.

1) Lack of Proper Planning: Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals. However it seems that it will not be able to achieve these international commitments because of financial management issues and constraints to achieve the MDGs and EFA goals. 2) Social constraints: It is important to realize that the problems which hinder the provision of education are not just due to issues of management by government but some of them are deeply rooted in the social and cultural orientation of the people. Overcoming the latter is difficult and would require a change in attitude of the people, until then universal primary education is difficult to achieve. 3) Gender gap: Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include poverty, cultural constraints, illiteracy of parents and parental concerns about safety and mobility of their daughters. Society’s emphasis on girl’s modesty, protection and early marriages may limit family’s willingness to send them to school. Enrolment of rural girls is 45% lower than that of urban girls; while for boys the difference is 10% only, showing that gender gap is an important factor. 4) Cost of education: The economic cost is higher in private schools, but these are located in richer settlements only. The paradox is that private schools are better but not everywhere and government schools ensure equitable access but do not provide quality education. 5) War on Terror: Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also affected the promotion of literacy campaign. The militants targeted schools and students; several educational institutions were blown up, teachers and students were killed in Balochistan, KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute not as much as other factors, but this remains an important factor. 6) Funds for Education: Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national level, 89% education expenditure comprises of current expenses such as teachers’ salaries, while only 11% comprises of development expenditure which is not sufficient to raise quality of education. 7) Technical Education: Sufficient attention has not been paid to the technical and vocational education in Pakistan. The number of technical and vocational training institutes is not sufficient and many are deprived of infrastructure, teachers and tools for training. The population of a state is one of the main elements of its national power. It can become an asset once it is skilled. Unskilled population means more jobless people in the country, which affects the national development negatively. Therefore, technical education needs priority handling by the government. Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack of access, poor quality, equity, and governance have also contributed in less enrolments. An analysis of the issues and problems suggest that: The official data shows the allocation of funds for educational projects but there is no mechanism which ensures the proper expenditure of those funds on education.

 The existing infrastructure is not being properly utilized in several parts of the country.  There are various challenges that include expertise, institutional and capacity issues, forging national cohesion, uniform standards for textbook development, and quality assurance.  The faculty hiring process is historically known to be politicized. It is because of this that the quality of teaching suffers and even more so when low investments are made in teachers’ training. As a result teachers are not regular and their time at school is not as productive as it would be with a well-trained teacher.  Inside schools there are challenges which include shortage of teachers, teacher absenteeism, missing basic facilities and lack of friendly environment.  Out of school challenges include shortage of schools, distance – especially for females, insecurity, poverty, cultural norms, parents are reluctant or parents lack awareness. Solutions There is a need for implementation of national education policy and vision 2030 education goals. An analysis of education policy suggests that at the policy level there are several admirable ideas, but practically there are some shortcomings also. It may not be possible for the government at the moment to implement uniform education system in the country, but a uniform curriculum can be introduced in educational institutes of the country. This will provide equal opportunity to the students of rural areas to compete with students of urban areas in the job market. Since majority of Pakistani population resides in rural areas and the access to education is a major problem for them, it seems feasible that a balanced approach for formal and informal education be adopted. Government as well as non-government sector should work together to promote education in rural areas. The government should take measures to get school buildings vacated which are occupied by feudal lords of Sindh, Balochistan and Punjab. Efforts should be made to ensure that proper education is provided in those schools. The federal government is paying attention to the vocational and technical training, but it is important to make the already existing vocational and technical training centres more efficient so that skilled youth could be produced. Since education is a provincial subject, the provincial education secretariats need to be strengthened. Special policy planning units should be established in provinces’ education departments for implementation of educational policies and formulation of new policies whenever needed. The provincial education departments need to work out financial resources required for realising the compliance of Article 25-A.

by affluent and economically stable people who send their children to private schools and abroad for education. The problem arises when non-affluent families send their children to private schools, and universities. This aspiration for sending children for higher education is wrong, because the country does not need managers and officers only. There are several other jobs where people are needed. Hence the mind-set of sending one’s children to university only for becoming officers and managers needs to be changed.