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PSYC 3480 MIDTERM NOTES 2022 UPDATE ASSUARED SUCCESS, Exams of Nursing

A.T. Still University of Health Sciences (ATSU)Nursing

An overview of the interdisciplinary field of sport and exercise psychology. It covers topics such as the nature of sport and exercise psychology, positive psychology in sport and exercise, careers in the field, and the history of the discipline. The document also discusses the development of sport and exercise psychology around the world and provides an introduction to basic concepts in the field.

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2022/2023

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PSYC 3480 MIDTERM NOTES 2022 UPDATE

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Chapter 1. Introducing Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.1 The Nature of Sport and Exercise Psychology

- Definitions of sport and exercise psychology differ

oSome emphasize sport and exercise science

oSome emphasize performance enhancement

oSome address psychological principles applied to physical activity settings

- Sport and exercise psychology has been shaped by theoretical and methodological

influences of kinesiology and psychology

oMuch research and practice is heavily dominated by theoretical perspectives

developed in the general field of psychology

- Sport and exercise psychology : an interdisciplinary scientific and applied field that

embraces the integration of sport science and psychological knowledge

Sport and Exercise Psychology: A Multidimensional Perspective

- Disciplines within psychology that have an impact on sport and exercise psychology:

oCognitive psychology

oClinical and counselling psychology

oBehavioral neuroscience

oSocial psychology

oDevelopmental psychology

oHealth psychology

- Many human health and wellness challenges require a transdisciplinary approach

Positive Psychology in Sport and Exercise

- Positive psychology : an area of psychology primarily concerned with understanding

the processes that enable people and groups to thrive

- Think of positive psychology as focusing on the more favourable attributes or strengths

that an individual may possess

oCan be thought of as an examination of the subjective experiences of well-being,

satisfaction, fulfilment, pleasure, and happiness

- Much research in sport and exercise psychology is directed toward

enhancing performance, social and physical well-being, and positive emotion

- Positive psychology can strengthen psychological resilience through the development of

skills based on:

oAvoiding thinking traps

oStaying calm and focused, and

oPutting things in perspective

- Development of resiliency is important in sport and exercise psychology

- Positive psychology in sport and exercise can include emotional, cognitive, and

behavioral intervention approaches

oEmotional − focus on fostering positive emotional states such as joy, happiness,

relaxation, and satisfaction

These states are important for motivation and well-being

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Chapter 1. Introducing Sport and Exercise Psychology 1.1 The Nature of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Definitions of sport and exercise psychology differ o Some emphasize sport and exercise science o Some emphasize performance enhancement o Some address psychological principles applied to physical activity settings
Sport and exercise psychology has been shaped by theoretical and methodological influences of kinesiology and psychology o Much research and practice is heavily dominated by theoretical perspectives developed in the general field of psychology
Sport and exercise psychology: an interdisciplinary scientific and applied field that embraces the integration of sport science and psychological knowledge Sport and Exercise Psychology: A Multidimensional Perspective
Disciplines within psychology that have an impact on sport and exercise psychology: o Cognitive psychology o Clinical and counselling psychology o Behavioral neuroscience o Social psychology o Developmental psychology o Health psychology
Many human health and wellness challenges require a transdisciplinary approach Positive Psychology in Sport and Exercise
Positive psychology: an area of psychology primarily concerned with understanding the processes that enable people and groups to thrive
Think of positive psychology as focusing on the more favourable attributes or strengths that an individual may possess o Can be thought of as an examination of the subjective experiences of well-being, satisfaction, fulfilment, pleasure, and happiness
Much research in sport and exercise psychology is directed toward enhancing performance, social and physical well-being, and positive emotion
Positive psychology can strengthen psychological resilience through the development of skills based on: o Avoiding thinking traps o Staying calm and focused, and o Putting things in perspective
Development of resiliency is important in sport and exercise psychology
Positive psychology in sport and exercise can include emotional, cognitive, and behavioral intervention approaches o Emotional − focus on fostering positive emotional states such as joy, happiness, relaxation, and satisfaction  These states are important for motivation and well-being

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o Cognitive − examining how factors such as optimism influence emotional experience, motivation, health, and performance o Behavioural − enhancing behavioural self-regulation strategies  Ex. Nurturing psychological strengths (rather than trying to reduce weaknesses, this approach gets athletes to focus on their strengths to improve confidence and facilitate developing mental toughness)

Many studies in sport and exercise psychology rooted in positive psychology − research has focused on: o Intrinsic motivation o Confidence o Enjoyment o Satisfaction o Positive psychological growth o Team cohesion o Effective leadership o Mental well-being o Goal setting o Self-compassion o Challenge o Success
Major focus is related to enhancing well-being by increasing positive qualities like confidence, independence, social and physical functioning, and life satisfaction
Positive psychology can contribute to performance enhancement coaching by expanding our understanding of the link between positive traits, states, and performance
Key foundation of positive psychology − athletes will perform better if they use and develop their strengths rather than focusing on their weaknesses o Referred to as “strengths-based coaching” o This approach can enhance athletes’ mental toughness and their performance Careers in Sport and Exercise Psychology
Career options can be classified into three major areas:
Teaching o Providing educational services to community and sport organizations o Increasing the awareness of sport and exercise psychology o Teaching basic principles of sport and exercise psychology o Helping athletes to develop, modify, and apply psychological skills to enhance performance o Working with clients to enhance exercise behaviour and well-being
Research o Through specialized training, design, conduct, and evaluate research questions o Researchers in areas such as personality, motivation, anxiety, stress and coping, group cohesion, aggression and moral behaviour, youth sport, aging and physical activity, leadership and coaching, body image, and exercise and mental health o Seek to describe, predict, explain, and sometimes change cognition, emotion, and behaviour in physical activity settings

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1.2 Standards of Conduct and Practitioner Competencies in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Ethics: concerned with matters of right and wrong as they relate to human behaviour o Also refers to the nature, terms, and parameters of the relationship between the consultant and the client
Consultants have an ethical responsibility to assist athletes and to do no harm
Ethical codes provide guidelines for what to do, when to do it, and how to do it
Codes of ethics particularly relevant to sport and exercise psychology consultants working in Canada: o Ethics Code: AASP Ethical Principles and Standards o CSPA Code of Ethics o CPA Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists

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1.3 History of Sport and Exercise Psychology Sport and Exercise Psychology in Canada and the United States

The post-WWII expansion of universities in the United States had an important impact on sport and exercise psychology o Universities established laboratories in motor learning and behaviour o Seeking to determine how people learned motor skills and how practice and feedback influenced learning
Sport psychology began to grow in Canada and US during the 1960s and 1970s o This growth corresponded with the establishment of many new universities and junior colleges
Two major scholarly professional organizations were established in the US and Canada: o North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) − 1967  Reflected the close ties between the training of specialists in motor learning and in sport psychology in the 1960s o Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology/Société Canadienne d’Apprentissage Psychomoteur et de Psychologie du Sport (SCAPPS) − 1977  Main objectives on improving the quality of research and teaching in the psychology of sport, motor development, and motor learning and control  Applied psychology was NOT emphasized  Continues to have strong influence on research in Canada
Late 1970s and 1980s were periods of consolidation in sport psychology as it separated from its motor learning parentage o Practice of sport psychology also became more widespread − services were increasingly sought by professional and Olympic sport organizations
1980s − growth of exercise psychology in North America o Sport psychology practices were included in the National Coaching Certification Program (NCCP) o Three prominent sport psychology journals were established:  The Journal of Sport Psychology (1979)  The Sport Psychologist (1986)  The Journal of Applied Sport Psychology (1989) o Key event − 1986 formation of the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP)  Now the largest organization devoted to the promotion of applied sport (and exercise) psychology  AASP conferences highlight research and professional issues in sport, exercise, and health psychology, and provide education workshops
Since 1990s, the growth of sport and exercise psychology has been propelled and shaped by societal concerns about health and health care costs
Dr. Albert Carron is recognized as one of the modern founders of sport and exercise psychology in Canada Sport and Exercise Psychology Around the World

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To examine causal relationships, we must identify differences between an independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable (DV) o Independent variable is supposed to change the dependent variable(s) o Researchers should manipulate the IV (exercise) to determine if the change is associated with a systematic change in the DV (social physique anxiety, mental and physical well-being)
Determining causation requires three key factors: o There must be a systematic statistical relationship between the IV and DV  As exercise levels change, the DVs change in a systematic (non- random) manner o There must be a clear temporal order between the IV and DV  Changes in exercise must precede changes in social physique anxiety and mental and physical well-being o Plausible reasonable explanations must be ruled out  Factors that can systematically affect the DVs must be eliminated or controlled  Ex. motivation, diet, drug use, weather, or simply wanting to please the researcher (often difficult to control)
Difference between a model and a theory o Sometimes models are precursors to theories, in other cases models are developed based on a specific theory o Models tend to be more restrictive in explanatory scope than theories o Scientific models can be of various types, including:  Scale models − often used as teaching aids, such as models of muscles, cells, and DNA structure (not often used in sport and exercise psychology)  Analogue models − more common in the social sciences (phenomena are explained as being like some kind of system or structure that is better understood)  Theoretical models − composed of a number of scientific constructs whose interrelationships are clearly stipulated, often based on research evidence, and should correspond to the real world (most common model in sport and exercise psychology)  Theory of planned behaviour − a theoretical model commonly used to explain relationships among exercise variables o Theories classically are more general o Theory: specifies relationships across a number of scientific constructs and attempts to explain phenomena across a number of different times, contexts, and people  A good theory provides sound reasoning (logical consistency) about proposed relationships among constructs
Key element of both models and theories − they should be testable − allowing for research hypotheses to be generated and scientifically evaluated o Research hypothesis: educated guess about the nature of the relationships among scientific constructs given specific conditions

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o Could be based on previous research evidence or on theoretical models that link moderate exercise to changes in brain chemistry that could alter mental and physical functioning o Construction of hypothesis allows researchers to devise experiments to evaluate models and theories  Building upon research allows for the confirmation, modification, or rejection of theories Approaches to Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Quantitative inquiry: focuses on counting the amount of a particular variable or set of variables − sometimes has been referred to as empirical-analytic
Use of quantitative methodology came from the natural sciences (e.g., physics, biology, and chemistry)
Use of quantitative methods also based on a number of philosophical assumptions about the nature of reality (ontology) and the structure of knowledge (epistemology)
Quantitative methods often assume that reality is objective and governed by laws o Knowledge is formed over time by objective reports from objective researchers
Approaches to collecting quantitative data: o Heart rate to measure exercise intensity o Accelerometer data to verify exercise frequency o Observation to record number of occurrences of positive feedback o Survey data to indicate athletes’ level of confidence
Advantages of quantitative research approaches: o Allow researchers to sample a large number of participants o Apply those results in a general way or to support a theory or model o Test multiple variables
Qualitative inquiry: collect non-numerical data and analyze and interpret the meanings people assign to their experiences related to sport and exercise o Qualitative research assumes that reality is subjective o People make sense of and assign meaning to their experiences based on their personal, social, cultural, and historical backgrounds o Researchers acknowledge and showcase (often through reflexivity) how their own personal backgrounds, coupled with the active role they play in devising of research questions, research design, and collection and analysis of data, impacts how they construct, interpret and present qualitative research findings
Qualitative research methods: o Face-to-face, one-on-one, focus group, mobile, or online interviews  Most common in sport and exercise psychology  Typically transcribed verbatim and then analyzed by researchers to identify patterns, categories, themes, and relationships in the text related to their research question(s) o Observations o Written documents (e.g., diaries, letters, written responses) o Visual data (e.g., photographs, drawings, videos)
Common qualitative research traditions in sport and exercise psychology:

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Chapter 2. Personality in Sport and Exercise

Common myths about personality in sport and exercise: o A distinct elite athlete personality profile exists o People choose physical activities and remain in these activities based on their personality 2.1 What Is Personality?
Personality referring to the consistency of social behaviour, thoughts, and emotions
Personality: a systematic variation in the way people think, feel, and behave o Emphasizes individual differences; each person is thought to be unique
Disposition: broad, pervasive, encompassing ways of relating to particular types of people or situations
In sport research, disposition has been applied to behaviours, thoughts, and emotions that are relatively stable, such as: o Competitiveness o Optimism o Motivational orientation Personality Traits
Trait: a relatively stable characteristic or quality that is a portion of one’s personality o Ex. perfectionism o Perfectionism consists of a cluster of expressions that includes being organized, compulsive, socially precise, controlled, self-disciplined, and self-critical  Individuals can vary in these attributes  A person scoring high in perfectionism should demonstrate many of these expressions  A person scoring low in perfectionism might be characterized as tolerant of disorder, flexible, impulsive, careless of social rules, and uncontrolled
Psychological states: momentary feelings and thoughts that change depending on the situation and time
Traits have a normal distribution throughout the population o Most people have moderate levels of a specific trait o Only a small percentage have extremely low or high levels of the trait
What makes prediction of behaviour difficult − personality is composed of several different traits that might combine to influence specific behaviours
Digman’s five-factor model of personality o Suggests that all people can be described in terms of the prevalence of five global factors (the “Big Five”) o Openness to experience: opposite of closed-mindedness o Conscientiousness: achievement striving, self-discipline o Extraversion: assertiveness, energetic approach to the world o Agreeableness: compliance, positive approach toward others o Neuroticism: feelings of tension and nervousness
Long-term success in sport might be influenced by personality o Ex. conscientiousness was positively associated with quality of preparation, also linked to health behaviours and mortality

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o Ex. emotional stability predicted effective coping during competition

Personality variables may moderate motivational variables in the prediction of exercise behaviour o Individuals higher in extraversion and conscientiousness are more likely to meet their intentions to exercise 2.2 How Does Personality Develop? Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology: focuses on personal responsibility, human growth, personal striving, and individual dignity o Each person’s experiences, beliefs, values, and perceptions are emphasized in the present moment o Self-actualization (trying to be the best you can be, to reach your full potential) often associated with humanistic approaches
Carl Rogers (1959) o Humanist psychologist with great contributions to field of personality o Believed that when there is a discrepancy between a person’s self-perceptions and what is being experienced, this person might deny what is actually happening
Abraham Maslow (1943) o Humanist psychologist with great contributions to field of personality o Published a hierarchy of needs which suggests that as our basic human needs (lower tiers of the pyramid) are met, we strive to meet higher needs  Base of the pyramid − physiological needs (food, water, sleep, shelter)  Second tier − safety needs (provided in personal and social settings)  Third tier − social needs (feelings of belonging, connections to others, the acts of giving and receiving love)  Fourth tier − esteem needs, can be internal (self-respect and achievement) or external (recognition and status)  Top tier − self-actualization (the constant striving to make the most of one’s special abilities) Cognitive-Behavioural Approach
The learning perspective suggests that all behaviour is learned through experience o Discards notions of disposition, drives, or instincts
B.F. Skinner (1999) o Behaviour followed by a reward would increase in probability of reoccurrence o Behaviour followed by punishment would decrease in probability of reoccurrence o Behavioural patterns (such as personality) developed primarily because of the reinforcement and punishment of specific behaviours over time
Social learning theorists, such as Albert Bandura (1977, 1997) have influenced thinking about how personality may develop o Bandura argued that people’s behaviour is highly influenced by their self-efficacy

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o Person side − behaviour is highly influenced by relatively stable person forces o Situation side − the central role of the environment in behaviour

Major issue in the debate − cross-situational consistency of behaviour o Research in 1960s suggested that personality was a weak predictor of behaviour in specific situations  Personality traits were not very useful in understanding behaviour o Research in 1970s suggested that situations were equally inept at predicting behaviour
Both personal and situational factors impact behaviour in a predictive fashion
Interactional perspective came about in 1970s in response to perceived limitations of the person-vs-environment approaches
Endler and Magnusson’s (1976) interactionist approach o The situational interplay between the person and the environment determines the specific behaviours of an individual
Most current research of personality in sport and exercise emphasized an interactionist approach o Acknowledges that each person brings specific dispositions, experiences, and genetic variables to a physical activity situation o Majority of behaviour understood by considering interaction of personality and environment o Personality is best understood in terms of the specific type of context in which a person is embedded (such as cultural, organizational, and interpersonal realms) o Led to some sport and exercise psychology researchers to develop sport-specific measures of traits and dispositions
Interactionists try to understand how various traits or dispositions affect behaviour depending on the sport or exercise context o Consider the:  Interplay among the stable characteristics of the person  Goals and motivations of the person  Opportunities for and appropriateness of specific behaviours in a given context o The expression of personality is most evident during specific situations that are relevant and important to the person
Sport and exercise psychology research examines both stable and unstable personal and environmental factors with the aim of understanding specific types of behaviour Ethical Considerations of Personality Measurement
Ethical principles: typically devised by a specific organization and used by members of that organization to shape professional judgement and behaviour o Examples of ethical issues − integrity and the responsibility to protect the public’s well-being
In psychological testing, individuals need to be informed of: o The nature of tests o How the results will be used o Who will have access to the results

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Using tests or inventories for team selection is frowned upon since there is little evidence to support the validity of such use
Considerations when using psychological tests with athletic populations: o Breaches in confidentiality o The potential financial cost of testing athletes o The person administering the test must be qualified 2.3 Personality Research in Sport and Exercise
Much research in 1960s and 1970s directed toward determining if sporting performance could be predicted by personality traits o Associated research examined if athletes had different personalities than non- athletes and whether personality could predict the types of sports athletes selected o Little/weak evidence that personality can predict performance in a specific situation, athletes from non-athletes, or the type of sport people select
Most studies that have found relationships between personality and sport or exercise participation have demonstrated small effects
Personality still has an important place in the study of sport since personality interacts with other key psychological and environmental factors to impact behaviours, cognitions, and emotions Risk Taking, Sensation Seeking, and Alexithymia
Adventure and extreme sports involve aspects of risk taking: involves narrowing the margin of safety, both physically and psychologically
Sensation (stimulus) seeking: the seeking of varied, novel, complex and intense sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experiences o Motivational factor not only to participate but also to engage in risk-taking behaviours o Stimulus seekers have higher physiological activation levels or chronic levels of high excitation (which are rewarded when they take risks in sport) o Some researchers suggest sensation seeking is a heritable personality trait linked to the dopamine system
Perception of danger creates excitement in athletes o Athletes have a desire to conquer the situation
Study examining high-risk vs non-risk athletes (using the Big Five) o High-risk athletes scored highest in emotional stability, conscientiousness, and energy o Openness was highest in non-risk athletes o No significant differences for agreeableness
Research suggests individuals high in self-efficacy were more likely to take increased risks
Sensation seeking declines with age
Males are more drawn to high-risk sports than are females

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o 2) Mixed perfectionism − both high PC and high PS o 3) Pure evaluative concerns perfectionism (pure ECP) − high PC and low PS o 4) Non-perfectionism − low PC and low PS

Research suggests that pure PS was associated with lower levels of total burnout than non-perfectionism and mixed perfectionism o Pure PC associated with higher total burnout than non-perfectionism and mixed perfectionism o Pure PS associated with higher perceptions of control and challenge, higher perceptions of athletic achievement, and higher positive affect (compared to pure PC) o Pure PC associated with higher perceptions of threat and higher levels of avoidance coping
lmportant to consider the dimensions of perfectionism when predicting athletes’ psychological adjustment
Research suggests that perfectionistic striving was characterized by a mixed profile of both maladaptive and adaptive motivation and well-being outcomes and better performance o Perfectionistic concerns typically unrelated to performance but showed negative relationships with motivation and well-being o Perfectionistic striving found less problematic − more likely to be associated with positive outcomes
Relationships between perfectionism types and outcomes might be influence by gender, age, and sport types Passion
Not all types of passion are adaptive
Vallerand and colleagues (2003) Dualistic Model of Passion o Harmonious passion (HP): engaging in activity as part of one’s identity and for the pleasure of the activity  The activity becomes important, but is in balance (in harmony) with the rest of the person’s life  Ex. an athlete with HP may play a sport because it is an important part of their sense of identity, allows the attainment or pursuit of personally important outcomes, and is associated with enjoyment for its own sake (also called intrinsic regulation) o Obsessive passion (OP): involves a more rigid and uncontrolled urge to engage in activities because of external control or feelings of guilt  Ex. an athlete who has OP might be involved in sport to receive awards or enhance social status, or might feel compelled to engage to avoid guilt  Can often conflict with other aspects of life (school, jobs, relationships)
Research found HP to be associated with positive outcomes: o Positive emotions o Positive relationships o The ability to concentrate during an activity

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o The experience of the psychological state of flow (the state of complete immersion in an activity for its own sake)

OP associated with negative outcomes: o Negative emotions o Injury o Rigid persistence in exercise o Burnout o Aggression
Evidence that HP and OP are related to components of stress o OP associated with dysfunctional coping (i.e., ignoring pain and hiding an injury) o OP positively related to disengagement and avoidance strategies o HP positively related to task-oriented coping (i.e., increasing effort, problem solving, and logical analysis)
Obsessive passion associated with: o Perceptions of stressfulness and threat o Avoidance of information about the lockout o A number of emotional and disengagement coping strategies (e.g., denial, disengagement, seeking social support, substance abuse)
HP and OP both associated with performance o Both associated with highly structured goal-directed practice (known as deliberate practice) and subsequent performance o HP more likely to be associated with better life satisfaction, higher psychological needs satisfaction, and achievement goals that emphasized approaching success through learning and effort Mental Toughness
Identified as one of the most critical psychological characteristics for achieving excellence in elite sport
Mental toughness: typically conceptualized as a set of positive characteristics that allow the person to cope with challenging situations to attain important achievement goals
Psychological characteristics associated with mental toughness: o Perceived control o Competitiveness o Concentration o Confidence o Commitment o Determination o Desire o Focus o Emotional intelligence o Resilience o Persistence o Optimism
Mental toughness in sport popularized through two key applied sport psychology books by Loehr (1986) and Goldberg (1988)

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2.4 Personality Traits and Exercise: Is There an Exercise Personality? Evidence for Relationships between Personality and Exercise

Extraversion and conscientiousness had a positive association with exercise o Mixed evidence for a negative relationship with neuroticism o Relationships were small − personality has a relatively minor association with exercise and physical activity
Openness to experience and agreeableness did not have a reliable relationship with exercise o Conscientiousness may affect the successful translation of good exercise intentions into behaviour o Intention-behaviour relationship is larger for more-conscientious individuals than their less-conscientious counterparts  Organization and self-discipline marked by those high in conscientiousness translate into these individuals planning and executing exercise behaviours
Type A personality: a blend of competitiveness and hostility with agitated behaviour and continual movement patterns o Blend of high extraversion, high neuroticism, high conscientiousness, and low agreeableness o Significant positive association between Type A and exercise  Exercise could be a natural behaviour to satisfy the hard-driving, competitive, and constantly moving Type A individuals
Type D personality: a blend of worry, gloom, and lack of self-assurance as a cluster of traits used in medical psychology o Associated with tendencies to experience higher levels of negative affect and high social inhibition o Represents a clustering of low extraversion and high neuroticism o Found to participate in significantly less physical activity
Extraversion’s activity trait: a disposition toward a fast lifestyle, being high energy, talking fast, and keeping busy o People who are high in activity like to be on the move − regular exercise could be a behaviour of choice given its energy demands o A reliable and strong predictor of exercise
The conscientiousness facet of industriousness-ambition o Comprises aspects of achievement/striving and self-discipline o A natural extension of this type of disposition could be regular exercise given its challenge, impact on health and appearance, and self-regulatory barriers to fit it into a daily schedule o Significant relationship between this trait and behaviour − may be the critical link between conscientiousness and physical activity Targeting Exercise Programs Based on Personality
Personality traits may interact with recruitment materials or promotion strategies to impact exercise intervention effectiveness
Limited research on exercise promotion and personality

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Research suggests that messages were more effective in increasing walking behaviour among conscientious individuals o Personality traits may need targeting to help less-conscientious individuals
Extraversion and neuroticism may affect the utility of physical activity interventions on mobile phones o Extraverts and those higher on neuroticism found to increase physical activity under a social comparison strategy but not using peer pressure
Different programs could be targeted to various personalities to create a good match o Extraverts preferred exercises with company (presumably because of the social element of the experience) o Those open to experience preferred outdoor activities rather than exercising at home or in a fitness centre
Personality has shown relationships with modes of physical activity o Extraverts − swimming, aerobic conditioning, dancing, and tennis o Introverts − gardening and home improvement o No associations between extraversion and walking, jogging, golf, and cycling
Relationship between extraversion and physical activity is intensity dependent

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