Docsity
Docsity
Prepare for your exams
Prepare for your exams

Study with the several resources on Docsity

Earn points to download
Earn points to download

Earn points by helping other students or get them with a premium plan

Guidelines and tips
Guidelines and tips
Sell on Docsity
Sell on Docsity
Docsity AI
Docsity AI
Log inSign up

Prepare for your exams

Study with the several resources on Docsity

Find documents

Prepare for your exams with the study notes shared by other students like you on Docsity

Search for your university

Find the specific documents for your university's exams

Docsity AINEW

Summarize your documents, ask them questions, convert them into quizzes and concept maps

Explore questions

Clear up your doubts by reading the answers to questions asked by your fellow students

Earn points to download

Earn points by helping other students or get them with a premium plan

Share documents
download point icon20 Points

For each uploaded document

Answer questions
download point icon5 Points

For each given answer (max 1 per day)

All the ways to get free points
Get points immediately

Choose a premium plan with all the points you need

Study Opportunities

Choose your next study program

Get in touch with the best universities in the world. Search through thousands of universities and official partners

Community

Ask the community

Ask the community for help and clear up your study doubts

Free resources

Our save-the-student-ebooks!

Download our free guides on studying techniques, anxiety management strategies, and thesis advice from Docsity tutors

Psych Document MCAT with Complete Solutions., Exams of Nursing

Howard Community CollegeNursing

Psych Document MCAT with Complete Solutions.

Typology: Exams

2025/2026

Available from 02/20/2026

KattyJennifer-1
KattyJennifer-1 🇺🇸

5

(2)

6.1K documents

1 / 52

Toggle sidebar

This page cannot be seen from the preview

Don't miss anything!

bg1
1 / 52
Psych Document MCAT with Complete Solutions
webers Law - -the threshold at which you
are able to notice a change in any sensation is
the just noticeable difference
absolute threshold of sensation - -the
minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a
particular stimulus 50% of the time, at low levels
of stimulus some subjects can detect and some
can't. This is not the same as just noticeable
difference because JND is the smallest
difference that can be detected 50% of the time
subliminal stimuli - -stimuli below the
absolute threshold
The Vestibular system - --balance and
spacial orientation
-canal is filled with endolymph and causes it to
shift- which allows us to detect what direction our
head is moving in, and the strength of rotation
otolithic organs (utricle and saccule) - -
Help us to detect linear acceleration and head
positioning, can contribute to dizziness and
vertigo
Signal detection theory - -looks at how we
make decisions under conditions of uncertainty,
discerning between important stimuli and
unimportant noise
bottom up vs top down processing - -
bottom up: stimulus influences out perception,
process sensory information as it is coming in
(built from smallest piece of sensory information)
Topdown: background knowledge influences
perception ex. where's waldo. Driven by
cognition (brain applies what it knows and what it
expects to perceive and fill-in the blanks)
Gestalt principles
similarity
pragnanz
proximity
continuity
closure - -similarity- items similar to one
another grouped together
pragnanz- reality if often organized reduced to
simplest for possible (olympic rings)
proximity-objects that are close are grouped
together
Continuity- lines are seen as following the
smoothest path
closure- objects grouped together seem as whole
Structure of the Eye
cornea
anterior chamber
pupil
lens
ciliary muscle
posterior chamber
retina
choroid
sclera - -− Conjunctiva is first layer light
hits
− Cornea - transparent thick sheet of tissue,
anterior 1/6th.
− Anterior chamber - space filled with aqueous
humour, which provides pressure to maintain
shape of eyeball.
− Pupil is hole made by iris, which determines
eye color
− Lens bends the light so it goes to back of
eyeball.
− Suspensory ligaments, attached to a ciliary
muscle. These two things together form the
ciliary body, what secrets the aqueous humor.
− Posterior chamber Is area behind the ciliary
muscle, also filled with aqueous humor.
− Vitreous chamber - filled with vitreous humour,
jelly-like substance to provide pressure to
eyeball.
pf3
pf4
pf5
pf8
pf9
pfa
pfd
pfe
pff
pf12
pf13
pf14
pf15
pf16
pf17
pf18
pf19
pf1a
pf1b
pf1c
pf1d
pf1e
pf1f
pf20
pf21
pf22
pf23
pf24
pf25
pf26
pf27
pf28
pf29
pf2a
pf2b
pf2c
pf2d
pf2e
pf2f
pf30
pf31
pf32
pf33
pf34

Partial preview of the text

Download Psych Document MCAT with Complete Solutions. and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity!

webers Law - - the threshold at which you are able to notice a change in any sensation is the just noticeable difference absolute threshold of sensation - - the minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time, at low levels of stimulus some subjects can detect and some can't. This is not the same as just noticeable difference because JND is the smallest difference that can be detected 50% of the time subliminal stimuli - - stimuli below the absolute threshold The Vestibular system - --balance and spacial orientation

  • canal is filled with endolymph and causes it to shift- which allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in, and the strength of rotation otolithic organs (utricle and saccule) - - Help us to detect linear acceleration and head positioning, can contribute to dizziness and vertigo Signal detection theory - - looks at how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty, discerning between important stimuli and unimportant noise bottom up vs top down processing - - bottom up: stimulus influences out perception, process sensory information as it is coming in (built from smallest piece of sensory information) Topdown: background knowledge influences perception ex. where's waldo. Driven by cognition (brain applies what it knows and what it expects to perceive and fill-in the blanks) Gestalt principles similarity pragnanz proximity continuity closure - - similarity- items similar to one another grouped together pragnanz- reality if often organized reduced to simplest for possible (olympic rings) proximity-objects that are close are grouped together Continuity- lines are seen as following the smoothest path closure- objects grouped together seem as whole Structure of the Eye cornea anterior chamber pupil lens ciliary muscle posterior chamber retina choroid sclera - - − Conjunctiva is first layer light hits − Cornea - transparent thick sheet of tissue, anterior 1/6th. − Anterior chamber - space filled with aqueous humour, which provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball. − Pupil is hole made by iris, which determines eye color − Lens bends the light so it goes to back of eyeball. − Suspensory ligaments, attached to a ciliary muscle. These two things together form the ciliary body, what secrets the aqueous humor. − Posterior chamber Is area behind the ciliary muscle, also filled with aqueous humor. − Vitreous chamber - filled with vitreous humour, jelly-like substance to provide pressure to eyeball.

− Retina is filled with photoreceptors.

  • Macula - special part of retina rich in cones.
  • Fovea - completely covered in cones, no rods. − Choroid - pigmented black in humans, a network of blood vessels. Bc black all light is reflected. − Sclera - whites of the eye, thick fibrous tissue that covers posterior 5/6th of eyeball. Attachment point for muscles. sensation requires - - light--> neural impulse by a photo receptor What is light - - electromagnetic wave part of a large spectrum EM spectrum contains everything from gamma rays tp AM/FM waves. Visible light is in the middle (violet 400-Red Rods and cones - - rods are for night vision, normally rod is on when light hits turns off when rod is off, it turns on a bi polar cell, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which goes into the optic nerve and enters the brain cones see color, centered in the fovea Phototransduction cascade - --when light hits rods and cones a set of steps that turn it OFF
  • inside rod there are disks stacked on top of each other. There is a lot of protein in the disks, one is rhodopsin. When light hits, it can hit the retinal in rhodopsin, and causes it to change conformation from bent to straight. then rhodopsin changes shape. This is the beginning of a cascade of events
  • Transducin breaks from rhodopsin, and alpha part comes to disk and binds to phosphodiesterase (PDE).
  • PDE takes cGMP and converts it to regular GMP. Na+ channels allow Na+ ions to come in, but for this channel to open, need cGMP bound. As cGMP decreases, Na channels closes.
    • As less Na+ enters the cell, rods hyperpolarize and turn off. Glutamate is no longer released, and no longer inhibits ON bipolar cells (it's excitatory to OFF bipolar cells).
    • So bipolar cells turn on. This activates retinal ganglion cell which sends signal to optic nerve to brain. Photoreceptors (Rods and Cones) - - − A photoreceptor is a specialized nerve that can take light and convert to neural impulse. − Inside rod are optic discs, which are large membrane bound structures - thousands of them. In membrane of each optic disc are proteins that fire APs to the brain. − Cones are also specialized nerves with same internal structure as rod. − Rods contain rhodopsin, cones have similar protein photopsin. − If light hits a rhodopsin, will trigger the phototransduction cascade. Same process happens in a cone. differences between rods and cones - - • 120 M rods vs. 6 million cones.
    • Cones are concentrated in the fovea.
    • Rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones. Better at detecting light - telling us whether light is present, ie. BW vision
    • Cones are less sensitive but detect color (60% Red, 30% Green, 10% Blue)
    • Rods have slow recovery time, cones have fast recovery time. Takes a while to adjust to dark - rods need to be reactivated. visual field processing - - how our brain makes sense of what we are looking at. Right side of body controlled by left side, vice versa feature detection and parallel processing - - − Color (cones, trichromatic theory of color
  • Primary auditory cortex is also sensitive to various frequencies in dif locations.
  • So with basilar tuning, brain can distinguish dif frequencies - tonotypical mapping. somatosensation - - − Types of Sensation, Intensity, Timing, and Location − Types: Temperature (thermoception), pressure (mechanoception), pain (nociception), and position (proprioception) − Timing: Non-adapting, slow-adapting, fast- adapting. − Location: Location-specific nerves to brain adaptation vs amplification - - Adaptation is change over time of receptor to a constant stimulus - downregulation − Ex. As you push down with hand, receptors experience constant pressure. But after few seconds receptors no longer fire. − Important bc if cell is overexcited cell can die. Ex. If too much pain signal in pain receptor (capsaicin), cell can die. Amplification is upregulation
  • Ex. Light hits photoreceptor in eye and can cause cell to fire. When cell fires AP, can be connected to 2 cells which also fire AP, and so on. Somatosensory Homunculus - - − Your brain has a map of your body - the cortex. − This part of cortex is the sensory cortex - contains the homunculus. − Info from body all ends up in this somatosensory cortex. − If there was a brain tumor, to figure out what part it's in neurosurgeons can touch diff. parts of cortex and stimulate them. If surgeon touches part of cortex patients can say they feel it. Do it to make sure they aren't removing parts in sensation. − This creates topological map of body in the cortex. Proprioception - - How can you walk in a pitch black room? You rely on your sense of balance/position - proprioception. − Tiny little sensors located in our muscles that goes up to spinal cord and to the brain. It's sensitive to stretching. − Sensors contract with muscles - so we're able to tell how contracted or relaxed every muscle in our body is Kinaesthesia - - is talking about movement of the body. Proprioception was cognitive awareness of body in space. Kinaesthesia is more behavioural. − Kinaesthesia does not include sense of balance, while proprioception does. pain receptor is called - - nociception temp receptor - - thermoception type of fibers for pain - - − 3 types of fibres - fast, medium, slow.
    • A-beta fibres - Fast ones are thick and covered in myelin (less resistance, high conductance)
    • A-delta fibres -- smaller diameter, less myelin.
    • C fibres - small diameter, unmyelinated (lingering sense of pain). Pain also changes conformation of receptors - capsaicin binds the TrypV1 receptor in your tongue, and triggers the same response. olfaction structure - - Smell is also known as olfaction − Area in nostril called the olfactory epithelium. Separating the olfactory epithelium from the brain is the cribriform plate. Above the plate is an extension from the brain - olfactory bulb - a bundle of nerves that sends little projections

through cribriform plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off.

  • At end of each connection are receptors, each sensitive to 1 type of molecule.
  • Molecule travels into nose, binds one of receptors on nerve endings. − Zoom in on olfactory bulb
  • Imagine there's olfactory cell sending projection to olfactory bulb. There are thousands of types of epithelial cells, each with dif receptor. Say this one is sensitive to benzene rings.
  • When it binds to receptor, triggers events that cause cell to fire. AP will end up in olfactory bulb. All cells sensitive to benzene will fire to one olfactory bulb - called a glomerulus.
  • They then synapse on another cell known as a mitral/tufted cell that projects to the brain. − The molecule binds to the GPCR receptor, G- protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell. Binds to ion channel, which opens and triggers an AP. Pheromones - - Why do dogs pee on fire hydrant? There are molecules released in the urine, which can be sensed by other animals through the nose - pheromones. − They're specialized olfactory cells. − Cause some sort of response in animal smelling them. − Pheromone is a chemical signal released by 1 member of the species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response. − Really important in animals, particularly insects
  • linked to mating, fighting, and communication. Specialized part of olfactory epithelium in animals - the accessory olfactory epithelium. It sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb. − Within the accessory olfactory epithelium, you have the vomeronasal system. − In vomeronasal system, there are basal cells and apical cells. They have receptors at tips. − Triangle will come in and activate receptor on basal cell here. Basal cell sends axon through accessory olfactory bulb to glomerulus, which eventually goes to the amygdala.
    • Amygdala is involved with emotion, aggression, mating etc. − Humans have vomeronasal organ, but no accessory olfactory bulb. Gustation - - − We have 5 main tastes, localized on the tongue - bitter, salty, sweet, sour, and umami (ability to taste glutamate). − Taste buds are concentrated anteriorly on the tongue. Taste buds can be fungiform (anterior), foliate (side), and circumvallate (back).
    • In each taste bud are the 5 receptor cells that can detect each taste. Each taste can be detected anywhere on the tongue.
    • Mostly on anterior part of tongue. − Each receptor has an axon, which all remain separate to the brain. And they all synapse on dif parts of the gustatory cortex. Known as the labelled lines model.
    • Ex. Glucose hits tongue, activates sweet cell (because it has sweet sensitive receptors), triggers cascade of events so cell depolarizes, and travels down axon to the brain.
    • Glucose binds GPCR, conformational change, G-protein dissociates, opens ion channels, cause cell to depolarize and fire an AP − Sweet, umami, and bitter cells GPCR receptors. − Sour and salty rely on ion channels. They bind to receptor directly, ex. NaCl binds to receptor and causes ion channel to open, and + ions outside flow in. Cell depolarizes and fires an AP. − What happens if we put salty receptor inside a sweet cell? Receptors in membrane bind to glucose. But let's insert a salty receptor. Since axon from cell leads to brain, if NaCl comes in, it activates the receptor, + ions go inside, sweet cell depolarizes and fires AP, and brain interprets it as a sweet signal. States of Consciousness - - − Consciousness is awareness of our self and environment - dif levels of awareness can be induced by external factors such as drugs or

Dream Theories - Freud and Activation Synthesis Hypothesis - - Do our dreams have a meaning? Sigmund Freud's theory of dreams says dreams represent our unconscious feelings/thoughts. Like an iceberg. − 1. What happens? Manifest content (Ex. Monster chasing you) − 2. What is hidden meaning? Latent content (Ex. Job pushing you out)

  • Can help us resolve and identify hidden conflict. Activation Synthesis Hypothesis − Brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex. − Brainstem = activation, and cortex = synthesis. − Our brain is simply trying to find meaning from random brain activity. Therefore might not have meaning. Sleep Disorders - - People with sleep deprivation might be more irritable and have poorer memory. Could be dangerous when it comes to flying airplanes or driving cars. − Also more susceptible to obesity - body makes more cortisol, and the hunger hormone. − Can also increase your risk for depression. REM sleep helps brain process emotional experiences, which can help protect against depression (not certain). − Can get back on track by paying back "sleep debt"
  • How much is enough sleep? 7-8 hours for adults. Varies with age and individual. Babies need a lot more. More serious form - insomnia (persistent trouble falling asleep or staying asleep). Various medications but taking them too long leads to dependence and tolerance. − Exercising or relaxing before bed can help Other end of spectrum is narcolepsy - can't help themselves from falling asleep. Various fits of sleepiness, going into REM sleep. Can occur any time. 1 in 2000. − Indications it's genetic, and linked to absence of alertness neurotransmitter. Sleep apnea - 1 in 20 people. People with it are often unaware. Stop breathing while sleeping - body realizes you're not getting enough oxygen, wake up just long enough to gasp for air and fall back asleep without realizing. Can happen 100x/night! − Don't get enough N3 (slow-wave) sleep. − Snoring is an indication, or fatigue in morning. Sleepwalking/sleep talking - mostly genetic, occur during N3 and are harmless. Occur more often in children (have more N3). Breathing-Related Sleep Disorders − Sleeping problems can arise from brain, airways, or lungs/chest wall. − Obstruction to airways causes problems breathing at night
    • Air going into nose/mouth reaches the lungs. Tissues around neck may block this airflow - snoring/gasping/pauses in breathing. Called an apnea (absence of airflow).
    • Called obstructive sleep apnea, ve Hypnotism (and the 2 theories) - - usually involves getting person to relax and focus on breathing, and they become more susceptible to suggestion in this state - but only if they want to. More alpha waves in this stage - an awake but relaxed state. − Some use hypnosis to retrieve memories, very dangerous because memories are malleable. Can create false memories. − 2 theories for how it works:
    • Dissociation Theory - hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness
    • Social Influence Theory - people do and report what's expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles − Refocused attention, so sometimes it's used to treat pain. Reduced activity in areas that process sensory input. Although it doesn't block it out, it might inhibit attention

Meditation - - training people to self- regulate their attention and awareness. Can be guided and focused on something in particular, like breathing, but meditation can also be unfocussed - mind wanders freely. − More alpha waves than normal relaxation in light meditation. − In deep meditation have increased theta waves in brain.

  • In people who regularly go to deep meditation, increased activity in prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus, and right anterior insula - increased attention control (goal of meditation). − Can be helpful for people with ADHD, or in aging. Depressants and Opiates - - Depressants are drugs that lower your body's basic functions and neural activity, ex. Heart rate, reaction time, etc. The most popular depressant is alcohol.
  • Think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep (and form memories), removes your inhibitions − Barbiturates - used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. Depress your CNS.
  • Side effects are reduced memory, judgement and concentration, with alcohol can lead to death (most drugs w/ alcohol are bad) − Benzodiazepines are the most commonly prescribed suppressant. Sleep aids or anti- anxiety
  • Enhance your brain's response to GABA. They open up GABA-activated chloride channels in your neurons, and make neurons more negatively charged.
  • 3 types: short, intermediate, and long-acting. Short and intermediate are usually for sleep, while long acting are for anxiety. − Opiates are used to treat pain and anxiety. Ex. Heroine and morphine. NOT a depressant.
  • Used to treat pain because they act at body's receptor sites for endorphins.
  • Different class than depressants, even though overlapping for anxiety, rest act on GABA receptors while opiates act on endorphin Rs.
  • Lead to euphoria, why taken recreationally Stimulants - - − Range from caffeine to cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, and ecstasy. In between is nicotine. − Caffeine (inhibits adenosine receptors) can disrupt your sleep. Nicotine also disrupts sleep and can suppress appetite.
    • At high levels, nicotine can cause muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters (to counteract hyper alertness).
    • Both physiologically addicting.
    • Withdrawal symptoms from both. Like anxiety, insomnia, irritability. − Cocaine is even stronger stimulant - releases so much dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine that it depletes your brain's supply. Intense crash and very depressed when it wears off.
    • Regular users can experience suspicion, convulsions, respiratory arrest, and cardiac failure. − Amphetamines and methamphetamines also trigger release of dopamine, euphoria for up to 8 hours.
    • Highly addictive
    • Long-term addicts may lose ability to maintain normal level of dopamine Hallucinogens - - − Ecstasy - synthetic drug both a stimulant and hallucinogen.
    • Increases dopamine and serotonin and euphoria. Also stimulates the body's NS. Can damage neurons that produce serotonin, which has several functions including moderating mood.
    • Causes hallucinations and heightened sensations, ex. artificial feeling of social connectedness. − LSD - interferes with serotonin, which causes people to experience hallucinations.
    • Hallucinations are visual instead of auditory − Marijuana is also a mild hallucinogen. Main active chemical is THC, which heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells.
    • Like alcohol, reduces inhibition, impairs motor

prolonged time. − Can result in substance-induced disorders. Could be disorders of mood (mania/depression), anxiety, sleep, sexual function, psychosis (loss of contact with reality). − Which can lead to substance use disorders. Causing real degree of impairment in life, at work, school, or home.

  • How do you know? By looking at their usage. Are they using increasingly large amounts, stronger cravings, more time recovering from it, failing to cut back, affecting obligations at work/home/school?
  • Second factor is presence of withdrawal.
  • Also tolerance. − With caffeine, can't develop substance-use disorder. Treatments and Triggers for Drug Dependence -
    • − Treatments address physiological + psychological symptoms. To treat, detox. But sometimes require strong medications to address symptoms.
  • For Opiates such as heroine act at neural receptor site for endorphins to reduce pain and give euphoria.
  • Methadone activates opiate receptors, but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high. Reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and can't experience the high because receptors are already filled.
  • For stimulants like tobacco, medications replace nicotine by delivering low levels of nicotine through patch, or deliver chemicals that act on nicotine receptors in brain. In this case prevents release or reuptake of dopamine. Help reduce cravings.
  • For alcoholics, meds block receptors in reward system of alcohol. Also reduce symptoms of withdrawal.
  • Important to prevent relapse during this early stage by minimizing negative symptoms. − Cognitive behavioural therapy - - addresses both cognitive and behavioural components of addiction. Recognize problematic situations and develop more positive thought patterns and coping strategies, and monitor cravings. Long-lasting − Divided Attention - - doing two things at once you end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously. selective attention - - process of reacting to certain stimuli selectively as they occur simultaneously. There are two types of cues that can direct our attention:
    • Exogenous - don't have to tell ourselves to look for them (Ex. Bright colors, loud noises, "pop-out effect")
    • Endogenous (require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it, ex. A mouse arrow, or the cocktail party effect).
    • Cocktail party effect - - ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone calls your name. Inattentional blindness - - we aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. Broadbent's Early Selection Theory - - − All info in environment goes into sensory register, then gets transferred to selective filter right away which filters out stuff in unattended ear and what you don't need to understand it (accents etc.), and finally perceptual processes identifies friend's voice and assigns meaning to words. Then you can engage in other cognitive processes.
    • Some problems - if you completely filter out unattended info, shouldn't identify your own name in unidentified ear. Cocktail party effect.

Deutch & Deutch's Late Selection Theory -

  • − Places broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. Selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness. − But given limited resources and attention, seems wasteful to spend all that time assigning meaning to things first. Treisman's Attenuation Theory - - − Instead of complete selective filter, have an attenuator - weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear. Then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. Then switch if something important. Spotlight model of attention - - Selective attention - takes info from 5 senses, but don't pay attention to everything. − Aware of things on an unconscious level
  • Priming, - - where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been paying attention to it.
  • We're primed to respond to our name. Why it's a strong prime for pulling our attention. Information processing model - - proposes our brains are similar to computers. We get input from environment, process it, and output decisions. − First stage is getting the input - occurs in sensory memory (sensory register). Temporary register of all senses you're taking in. − You have iconic (what you see, lasts half a second) and echoic (what you hear, lasts 3- 4 seconds) memory Working memory - - s what you're thinking about at the moment.
  • Verbal info - any words + numbers in both iconic and echoic memory
  • Is processed in the phonological loop.
  • Visual + verbal info - Need coordination of the two - the central executive fills that role.
  • Creates an integrated representation that stores it in the episodic buffer to be stored in long-term memory.
  • Visual + spatial info are processed in the visuo- spatial sketchpad − Magic number 7 - - can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time. Why phone #s are 7 digits long. − Explains the serial position effect (primacy and recency effects) dual coding hypothesis - - it's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone. − Can use the method of loci - imagine moving through long-term memory - - − Explicit Memory (Declarative) - are facts/events you can clearly describe.
  • Anytime you take vocabulary test or state capitals you're using semantic memory (has to do with words). So remembering simple facts.
  • Second type is episodic memory (event-related memories). − Implicit memories (Non-declarative) involve things you may not articulate - such as riding a bicycle, procedural memories. − Other is priming - previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event Retrieval Cues - - − Priming - prior activation of nodes/associations, often without our awareness.
  • Ex. hearing apple and asked to name word starting with A − Context - the environment you encode and take

novel experiences. − Preoperational stage. (2-7 years)- When children are going to develop/engage in pretend play.

  • Very egocentric - no empathy. − Concrete operational stage. (7-11 years ) - Learn idea of conservation.
  • Can do test to find out if they're in this stage - take 2 glasses with same amount of water, pour one into short fat glass and other into tall skinny glass, and ask child which one has more. Before this stage will say tall glass, but once they reach concrete operational stage, have same amount of water.
  • Also begin to learn empathy. − Formal operational stage (12+) - reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences. Where sophisticated moral reasoning begins to take place. methods we can imply in problem solving: -
      1. Trial + error - not the most efficient.
  1. Algorithm - logical procedure of trying solutions till you hit the right one.
  2. Heuristics - mental shortcut to find solution quicker than other 2, ex. Focusing on one category of solutions.
  • Means-end analysis - we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems, and reduce differences between problem and goal.
  • Working backwards - start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to current. Used in mathematical proofs.
  1. Intuition - relying on instinct. High chance of error.
  • Fixation - getting stuck on a wrong approach. What happens might be insight - that aha moment. Or can let problem incubate - insight comes after some time.
  • Type I error = false positive
  • Type II error = false negative Availability vs. representativeness - - • Availability = actual memories in mind
    • Representativeness = not thinking of exact memories, thinking of a prototype of idea. Biases that prevent us from making correct decision - - Overconfidence - ex. Going into test without knowing a lot of info. − Could be due to fluency during studying.
      1. Belief perseverance - ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts − Ex. During elections ignore facts about someone you like.
      2. Confirmation bias - seek out only confirming facts. − Ex. Only read stories about how wonderful candidate was. Framing effects - how you present the decision. Ex. Disease that will kill 600 people, option A is 100% chance exactly 200 people saved, option B 30% chance all 600 saved. Which do you pick? OR A. 100% chance 400 die B. 1/3 chance no one dies and 2/3 chance 600 die. − In first, you'd pick A. In second, you'd pick B. Semantic Networks - - concepts are organized in mind in terms of connected ideas. Parallel to how info might be stored in a computer. Links can be shorter for closely related ideas, or longer for less related ideas.
    • First semantic network model was hierarchical - higher order to lower order categories.
    • Ex. Animal - > bird - > ostrich.
    • More specific characteristics like sings, long legs, stored at lower nodes. Can breathe at higher nodes.
    • Longer it takes us to verify connection between nodes longer it takes for us to make that link. − Not true for all animals/categories, ex. People verify pig is animal takes longer than pig is mammal. Therefore proposed modified semantic network. Intelligence (IQ is Intelligence Quotient) - - − A mental quality that allows you to learn from

experience, solve problems, and use your knowledge to adapt to new situations. Use numerical scores to measure aptitude for those tasks and compare them to how well others do. − One theory is there's 1 general intelligence.

  • Evidence comes from fact people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of test, ex. Verbal and math.
  • Factor underlying these consistent abilities is called g factor (g = general intelligence) − Also support for theories of 3 intelligences - analytical (Academic), creative (generate novel ideas and adapt), practical (solve ill-defined problems).
  • IQ score measures only analytical intelligence. − Another way is 2 major categories - fluid and crystallized intelligence - - • Fluid is ability to reason quickly and abstractly.
  • Tends to decrease as we move into older adulthood
  • Crystallized refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills.
  • Usually increases or stays same into adulthood nature vs. nurture - - How much is due to genes and how much due to environment/experiences? − Study heritability by looking at correlation scores of twins who grew up in different homes, identical twins raised together, and fraternal twins raised together.
  • Strongest correlation between identical twins (monozygotic) raised together.
  • Twins raised apart not as high, suggesting environment component.
  • Fraternal twins (dizygotic) even lower, suggesting also a genetic component. − No recipe for structuring environment to make a genius, even though we know environments that would impair intelligence. Spearman's idea of general intelligence - - single g factor responsible for intelligence that underlies performance on all cognitive tasks Gardner's idea of 8 intelligences - - differentiates intelligence into different modalities Galton's idea of hereditary genius - - human ability is hereditary Binet's idea of mental age - - how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years. − Behaviorists - - empiricist, believe language is just conditioned behavior. BF Skinner's behaviourist model says infants are trained in language by operant conditioning. − Nativists - - rationalist, language must be innate.
    • emphasizes innate biological mechanisms and that children are born with ability to learn language. − All people have a language acquisition device (LAD, later renamed universal grammar) that allowed them to learn language (syntax and grammar). − Idea that this ability exists - all languages shared same basic elements like nouns, verb, etc.
    • This allows child to pick up on that. Goes along with idea there's a "critical period", thought to be from birth to age 9, the period of time a child is most able to learn a language. − Materialist - - look at what happens in the brain when people think/speak/write.

− If you destroy it, get mellowing effect.

  • Kluver-Bucy syndrome - bilateral destruction of amygdala, can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior. Hippocampus - - key role in forming new memories. Convert short to long-term memory. − If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can't make new ones. Hypothalamus - -- for limbic system, it regulates the ANS (fight or flight vs. rest and digest). − Controls endocrine system. Role of cerebral cortex in emotions - - − Positive emotions evoke more activity on left side, and negative emotions evoke more activity on right side.
  • Little kids playing in group - more social kids had more activity in left hemisphere, and isolated kids more activity in right. prefrontal cortex - - − Responsible for many higher-order functions, everything that distinguishes humans.
  • Executive control - solve problems, make decisions, how you act in social situations.
  • Ex. Phineas Gage had iron rod penetrate his prefrontal cortex. After incident, rude and rough, behaved inappropriately Autonomic Nervous System (ANS - - − Has 2 branches - sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest).
  • Sympathetic: pupils dilate, decrease in salivation, increase respiration/heart rate/glucose release/adrenaline, decrease in digestion
  • Parasympathetic: pupils constrict, decrease respiratory rate/heart rate, increase glucose storage, decrease in adrenaline, increase digestion. Three Components of Emotion - - − Physiological components - when surprised HR increase, muscles tense, temperature increase. − Cognitive - vary person to person, they're mental assessments that can include thoughts and assessments of situation. Cognitive experiences result from emotions, and can cause emotions. − Behavioural - emotions may bring about behaviours. − Emotions are temporary, and can be negative or positive. Also vary in intensity. They're involuntary. universal emotions - - • happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger and surprise. Consistent expressions across culture. − James-Lange theory - - (Physiologically based) experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses.
    • Ex. Holding pet cat, increased HR/neurotransmitters/smile, then happiness. When sad, don't cry because you're sad, you're sad because you cry.
    • Ex. physiological arousal followed by aggressive emotions (not simultaneous)
    • Physiological → Emotion − Cannon-Bard theory - - disagreed with James-Lange, noticed many different emotions had same physiological responses. Believed physiological response and emotion occurred simultaneously.
    • Simultaneously experience arousal and aggression
    • Physiological = emotion

− Schachter-Singer - - physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form emotion. We don't feel emotion until we're able to identify reason for situation.

  • Arousal and interpretation of arousal leads to aggressive emotion.
  • Physiological + Cognitive → Emotion − Lazarus Theory - - experience of emotion depends on how the situation is appraised (labelled).
  • Stimulus → labelling situation (cognitive) → emotion + physiological response.
  • How we label event is based on cultural/individual differences.
  • Interpretation of event leads to arousal and aggression
  • Cognitive → Emotion + Physiological Yerkes-Dodson Law - - People perform best when they are moderately aroused Stress - - Strain that experienced when an organism's equilibrium is disrupted
  • Ex. There is a stressor (source of stress) such as a dog, and the stress reaction (bunny's physical and emotional response). Stress is the process encompassing both.
  • appraisal theory of stress. - - − Primary appraisal - evaluating for presence of a potential threat.
  • 3 categories of response to this primary appraisal - irrelevant, benign (positive), stressful (negative).
  • If primary appraisal is negative, move forward with secondary appraisal. − Secondary appraisal - assessing capability to cope with the threat or to deal with stressor.
  • Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it). Distinct stages of stress - general adaptation syndrome - - − 1. Alarm phase - stress kicks in, heart races. − 2. Resistance - fleeing, huddling, etc. Bathed in cortisol. − 3. Exhaustion - if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our tissues become damaged and we become susceptible to illness. 2 areas of brain with most glucocorticoid receptors - - the hippocampus and frontal cortex − Hippocampus is associated with learning and memory. − Frontal cortex is responsible for impulse control, reasoning, etc. Atrophy during chronic stress − Learned helplessness - -- you learn from having control ripped out of hands that you don't have control, so lose ability to identify coping mechanisms because taking less control of outcome of your life − Anger - - Stress is associated with increased vulnerability to heart disease. Type A is easily angered individuals, and Type B others. Those who had heart attacks later were mostly type A. − Anxiety - - centers on amygdala. Amygdala has to do with our fears and phobias, fits in perfectly with response to stress. Perceive more things as fearful. − Addiction - - lots of terrible options for relieving stress, ex. Alcohol, tobacco, etc. Impairment to frontal cortex (reasoning), so impaired judgement can increase likelihood of inappropriate coping mechanisms.

Upper motor signs: - - − Hyperreflexia - increase in the muscle stretch reflexes.

  • Cause is unclear, but when muscle spindle receptors are activated, without periodic stimulation of LMNs by UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get bigger reflex. − Clonus - rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle.
  • Ex. Foot goes involuntarily up and down. Cause is hyperflexia, because if doctor pulls on foot activates muscle stretch reflex, so triggers antagonist muscles. − Hypertonia - increased tone of skeletal muscles. − Extensor Plantar Response - if you take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up. Somatosensory Tracts - - − Somatosensory information travels in different pathways. In general, 2 big categories:
    1. position sense, vibration sense, and fine touch
    1. pain, temperature, gross touch − Deliver info to spinal cord. − Spinal cord carries info to the brain in one of the tracts. Crosses other side immediately, then goes to cerebrum. − It is why injury to one side of brain often results in damage to other side Overview of the Functions of the Cerebral Cortex
    • − Frontal lobe - motor, prefrontal, Broca's area − Parietal lobe - somatosensory cortex, spatial manipulation − Occipital lobe - vision, "striate cortex" − Temporal cortex - sound, Wernicke's area Cerebellum - - − Coordinates movement: motor plan info is sent to cerebellum, also receives position sense information (ex. Muscle stretch fibres), and sends feedback to the cerebellum and motor areas of motor cortex. − Middle of cerebellum coordinates middle body movement and walking, while the sides are involved in movements of the limbs - arms and legs. Also speech and movement of eyes. Brainstem - - − Connects all parts of the brain together, including the cranial nerves. − Midbrain, pons, medulla. − Neuron somas scattered throughout brainstem is the reticular formation - big role in autonomic functions, and controlling things like respiration, digestion, and lower/higher functions. − Long tracts - collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem.
      • 2 long tracts that are important: motor (UMNs), and somatosensory. − Internal capsule - - contains many important pathways, including the corticospinal tract − Corpus collosum - - connects right and left cerebral hemispheres. − Basal ganglia - - major role in motor functions, don't have UMNs but help motor areas to perform proper movements. Also cognition + emotion. − Thalamus - - Sensory functions, because all senses have pathways that travel to the thalamus. Also higher functions of brain such as cognition and emotion. − Hypothalamus - - controls the pituitary gland, the master gland that controls all other glands in body.

− Glutamate - - most common excitatory neurotransmitter.

  • Reticular activating system (required for consciousness) has diffuse projection of glutamate to the cerebral cortex. − GABA (brain) and Glycine (spinal cord) -
    • most common inhibitory NTs − Acetylcholine - - nuclei in frontal lobe that releases it to cerebral cortex, called the Basilis and septal nuclei.
  • Released for LMNs, and the autonomic nervous system. − Histamine - - hypothalamus sends it − Norepinephrine - - area in pons called the locus ceruleus that releases it.
  • Also ANS, but less so than Ach. − Serotonin - - raphe nuclei in midbrain/medulla release it. − Dopamine - - VTA and substantia nigra − ways to study Brain structure - - • CAT scans (CT scan)
  • MRI ways to study brain function - - • EEG - external, can't tell us about activity of individual/groups of neurons. Can only look at sum total. Can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cognitive tasks.
    • MEG (aka SQUIDS) - better resolution than EEG, but more rare because requires a large machine and special room to shield it. ways to study both structure and function -
      • • fMRI - same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active (can see BLOOD FLOW)
    • PET scans - can't give us detail of structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time. Adoption studies - - adopted child is compared to biological family and their adopted family. If no relation between individual and biological parents, but there is relation between individual and adoptive parents, then can assume environment was a factor. If opposite, then genetic factor. − Problems: incomplete info about biological families. Also adoption isn't random, adoptive family sometimes matched to biological family. Identical twins adopted by different family - genetically similar, different environments. But families who adopt are usually similar. phenylketonia - - caused by mutations to a gene that encodes a liver enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. But because enzyme is missing amino acid phenylalanine, it doesn't get converted into tyrosine. Build-up of phenylalanine can cause brain problems.
    • During infant screening, placed on phenylalanine-free diet, and most grow up without major problems inherited trait - - innate behaviours are encoded by DNA intrinsic trait - - present even if you're raised