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Chapter No. VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES WHAT ARE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES? Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s characteristics and behaviour patterns. Psychologists believe that: Behaviors are influenced by our personal traits Behaviors are influenced by more by situational factors. SITUATIONISM WHAT IS SITUATIONISM? Situationism is a view which states that situations and circumstances i n which one is placed to influence one’s behaviour. The situationist perspective views human behaviour relatively more as a result of influence of external (situational) factors than personality traits. ASSESSMENT Assessment refers to the measurement and evaluation of psychological attributes of individuals, often using multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparison. Any attribute will be said to exist in a person only if it can be measured by u s i n g s c i e n t i f i c p r ocedures. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOCIAL ASSESSMENT? Psychological assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours, and personal qualities of individuals. TYPES OF ASSESSMENT:
- Formal Assessment: Objective, standardised, organized ’psychologists are trained in making formal assessment. Psychologist are trained in making formal assessment. - Informal Assessment: It varies from case to case/one assessor to another—open to subjective interpretation.
SCOPE OF ASSESSMENTS
METHOD DEFINITION USES OF METHOD
Psychological Test An objective and standardised measure of an individual’s mental and/or behavioural characteristics. Objective tests have been developed to measure all the dimensions of psychological attributes (e.g., intelligence, aptitude, etc.) described above. These tests are widely used for the purposes of clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection, placement, and training. Interview Seeking information from a person on a one- to-one basis. Counsellor interacts with a client. Salesperson makes a door - to-door survey regarding the usefulness of a particular product. Employer selects employees for her/his organization. Journalist interviews important people on issues of national and international importance. Case Study In-depth study of the individual in terms of her/his psychological attributes, psychological history in the context of her/his psychosocial and physical environment. Used by clinical psychologists. Case analyses of the lives of great people can also be highly illuminating for those willing to learn from their life experiences. Case studies are based on data generated by different methods, e.g. interview, observation, questionnaire, psychological tests, etc. Observation Involves employing systematic, organised, and objective procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time. Certain phenomena such as mother- child interactions can be easily studied through observation. LIMITATIONS The major problems with observational methods are that the observer has little control over the situation and the reports may suffer from subjective interpretations of the observer. Self - Report measure Person provides factual information about herself/himself and/or opinions, beliefs, etc. that s/he holds Information is obtained by using an interview schedule, or a questionnaire ,a psychological test,or a personal diary
E.G’S OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ATRRIBUTES
Intelligence, Personality, Self-esteem, values, interest, Aptitude, Emotional intelligence., etc.., ATTRIBUTES DEFINITION USES OF TEST Intelligence Global capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use available resources effectively when faced with challenges. Intelligence tests provide a global measure of a person’s general cognitive competence including the ability to profit from schooling. Aptitude An individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills. To predict what an individual will be able to do if given proper environment and training. Interest An individual’s preference for engaging in one or more specificactivities relative to others. Assessment of interests of students may help to decide what subjects or courses they can pursue comfortably and with pleasure. Knowledge of interests helps us in making choices that promote life satisfaction and performance on jobs. Personality Relatively enduring characteristics of a person that make her or him distinct from others. Personality tests try to assess an individual’s unique characteristics, e.g. whether one is dominant or submissive, outgoing or withdrawn, moody or emotionally stable, etc. Personality assessment helps us to explain an individual’s behaviour and predict how she/he will behave in future. Values Enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour. A person having a value sets a standard for guiding her/his actions in life and also for judging others. In value assessment, we try to determine the dominant values of a person (e.g., political, religious, social or economic).
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Psychologists have proposed several theories of intelligence. Theories can be broadly classified as either representing
- Psychometric/structural approach
- Information-processing approach. PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH (STRUCTURAL)
INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
(FUNCTIONAL)
As an aggregate of abilities. Describes the processes people use in intellectual reasoning and problem solving. It expresses the individual’s performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities. The major focus of this approach is on how an intelligent person acts. Focusing on structure of intelligence Processing approaches emphasizes studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent behaviour. Theories of Psychometric Approach Uni/One factor Theory – Afred Binet Two factor Theory – Charles Spearman Theory of Primary Mental Abilities – Louis Thurstone Hierarchical Model of Intelligence- Arthur. Structure of Intellect Model – J.P Das Theories of Information processing Triarchic Theory of Intelligence – Robert Sternberg PASS Model of Intelligence – (J.P. Das, Jack Nagliery, Kirby) T HEORIES OF PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH
1. UNI/ONE-FACTOR THEORY - (ALFRED BINET)
- Definition: The ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
- First psychologist who formalised the concept of intelligence in terms of mental operations.
- Differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals.
- Conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment. 2. TWO-FACTOR THEORY - (CHARLES SPEARMAN) [1927]
- Employed a statistical method called factor analysis.
- Intelligence consists of a general factor (G-factor) and specific factors (S-factor). (i) G-Factor: It includes mental operations which are primary and common to all performances. (ii) S-Factor: It includes specific abilities which allow individuals to excel in their respective domains. Excellent singers, architects, scientists, athletes may be high on G-factor, along with that, S- factors help them to excel.
THEORIES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
- Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - (Robert Sternberg) [1985]
- Definition: The ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture.
- Three Basic Types of Intelligence:
- Componential Intelligence Or Analytical Intelligence is analysis of information to solve problems. Persons high on this ability think analytically and critically and succeed in schools. Three components of this Intelligence serving different functions are: (a) Knowledge Acquisition —responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways of doing things. (b) Meta or Higher Order Component —planning concerning what to do and how to do it. (c) Performance Component —actually doing things.
- Experiential Or Creative Intelligence: is using past experiences creatively to solve novel problems. It is reflected in creative performance. — Ability to integrate different experiences in an original way to make new discoveries and inventions. — Quickly find out what information is crucial in a given situation.
- Contextual/Practical Intelligence : The ability to deal with environmental demands encountered on a daily basis— — may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’ — easily adapt to their present environment/select a more favourable environment, modify the environment to fit their needs. PASS MODELOF INTELLIGENCE Planning, Attention-arousal and Simultaneous- Successive (PASS) Model of Intelligence (J.P. Das, Jack Nagliery, Kirby) [1994]
- Intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological systems, called the functional units of brain
- These units are responsible for— (i) Arousal/Attention: — Arousal and attention enable a person to process information. — An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a problem. — Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention and attend to stimuli. (ii) Simultaneous and Successive Processing: — Simultaneous: Perceive the relations among various concepts and integrate – them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension, e.g., RSPM.
— Successive: Remember all the information serially so that the recall of one leads to the recall of another, e.g., learning of digits, letters.. (iii) Planning: — Allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target, and evaluate their effectiveness. — If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or situation.
- These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally (by reading, writing, and experimenting) or informally from the environment.
- These processes are interactive and dynamic in nature, yet each has its own distinctive function. Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) (Das and Naglieri:
- Battery of tests meant for individuals between 5-18 years of age.
- Consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions presumed to be independent of schooling.
- Results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with learning problems. Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner):
- Intelligence is not a single entity; distinct types of intelligences exist independent of each other.
- Different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
- Studied persons who had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas and described eight types of intelligence. Linguistic (Production and use of language) - The capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and understand other. Persons high on this ‘word-smart’, poets and writers. Logical-Mathematical (scientific thinking and problem solving) – The capacity to think logically and critically. They engage in abstract reasoning and can manipulate symbols to solve math problems. Nobel Prize winners and scientists. Spatial: ( visual images and patterns) - The abilities involved in forming, using and transforming mental images. Transforming mental image in the mind. Pilots, sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators, surgeons Musical: (sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns): The capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical rhythms and patterns. Bodily-Kinesthetic ( Ability to use whole body or portions of it creatively): Use of whole body or portions of it for display, construction of products and problem solving. Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, gymnasts, surgeons.
Retardation was being two mental age years below the chronological age. 1912: William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to ratio between MA and CA. Formula—mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100 (to avoid the decimal point).
- Average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age.
- Frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve—symmetrical around the central value, called the mean. **VARIATIONS IN INTELLIGENCE
- Intelligence Deficiency (Mentally Retarded/Challenged):** The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation as significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period. In order to be judged as mentally retarded, a person must show: (i) Significantly sub average intellectual functioning, e.g., IQ below 70. (ii) Deficits in adaptive behaviour or the capacity to be independent and deal effectively with one’s environment. Deficits must be observed during the developmental period, i.e., between 0-18 years. Mild retardation—development is typically slower than that of their peers but they can function quite independently, hold jobs and families. Level of retardation increases—lag behind their peers in language and motor skills, need to be trained in self-care skills and simple social and
communication skills.
2. Intellectual Giftedness: Lewis Term an (1925): Study to show how intelligence was related to occupational success and life adjustment. These individual show higher performance because of their outstanding potentialities. Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of areas.
- Teacher’s perspective: depends on a combination of high ability, high creativity and high commitment.
- Early signs of intellectual superiority: during infancy show larger attention span, good memory, sensitivity to environmental changes, and early appearance of language skills.
- Other characteristics are advanced logical thinking and problem solving, high speed in processing information, high-level creative thinking, high self-esteem, independence.
- Incorrect to equate with brilliant academic performance: each gifted student possesses different strengths, personalities and characteristics, e.g., athletes. Talent refers to remarkable ability in a specific field, e.g., social, and are often called prodigies. Types of Intelligence Tests, Individual or Group Test Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression and regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence. (i) Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way as IQ is used to express intelligence. (ii) Salovey and Mayer : The ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions. CHARACTERISTICS OF EMOTIONALLY INTELLIGENT PERSONS Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions. Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body language, voice and tone, and facial expressions. Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them into account while solving problems and taking decisions. Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions. Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while dealing with self and others to achieve harmony and peace. SPECIAL ABILITIES Aptitude i s a combination of characteristics that indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill after training. With proper training, these abilities can be considerably enhanced. Interest is a preference for a particular activity; aptitude is the potentiality to perform that activity. In order to be successful in a particular field, a person must have both aptitude and interest. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE APTITUTE AND INTEREST A person may be interested in a particular job or activity, but may not have the aptitude for it. Similarly, a person may have the potentiality for performing a job, but may not be interested in doing that. In both cases, the outcome will not be satisfactory. A student with high mechanical aptitude and strong interest in engineering i s m o r e l i k e l y t o b e a successful mechanical engineer.
APTITUDE TESTS:
TWO FORMS OF TESTS
Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the form of test batteries , which measure aptitude in several separate but homogeneous areas. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT) General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB), Ar med S e r v i c e s V o c a t i o n a l Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known aptitude test batteries. Among these, DAT is most commonly used in educational settings. It consists of 8 independent subtests: Verbal Reasoning Numerical Reasoning Abstract Reasoning Clerical Speed and Accuracy Mechanical Reasoning Space Relations Spelling Language Usage J.M. Ojha has developed an Indian adaptation of DAT. Several other aptitude tests have been developed in India for measuring scientific, scholastic, literary, clerical, and teaching aptitudes. WHAT IS CREATIVITY?
- Creativity refers to the ability to produce ideas, objects and problem solutions that are novel and appropriate.
- It refers to the ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems.
- Creativity involves the production of same thing new and original it may be an idea, object or solution to a problem.
Resear chers have found that the relationship b e t w e e n c r eativity a n d intelligence is positive. . Hence, a certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but beyond that intelligence does not correlate well with creativity. It can be concluded that creativity can take many forms and blends. Some may have more of intellectual attributes, others may have more o f a t t r i b u t e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h creativity.
Creativity and Intelligence tests
Glossary
Aptitude: A combination of characteristics indicative of individual’s potential to acquire some specific skills with training. Aptitude Tests: Tests meant to measure individual’s potential to predict future performance. Beliefs: The cognitive component of the thoughts or ideas regarding a topic. Case Study: An intensive study of an individual or a situation to develop general principles about behaviour. Cognition: The process of knowing. The mental activities association with thought, decision making, language, and other higher mental processes. Cognitive Assessment System: A battery of tests designed to measure the four PASS (Planning- Attention-Simultaneous-Successive) process. Componential Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it refers to ability to think critically and analytically. Contextual Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it is the practical intelligence used in solving everyday problems. Creativity: The ability to produce ideas, objects, and problem solutions that are novel and appropriate. Culture-fair Test: A test that does not discriminate examinees on the basis of their culture experiences. Emotional Intelligence: A cluster of traits or abilities relating to the emotional side of life abilities such as recognising and managing one’s own emotions, being able to motivate oneself and restrain one’s impulses, recognising and managing others’ emotions, and handling interpersonal relationship in an effective manner. It is expressed in the form of an emotional quotient (EQ) score. Experiential Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it is the ability to use past experiences creatively to solve novel problems. Factor Analysis: Mathematical procedure, involving correlations, for sorting trait terms or test responses into clusters or factors; used in the development of test designed to discover basic personality traits. It identifies items that are homogeneous or internally consistent and independent of others.
Observational Method: Employing systematic, organised and objective procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time. Performance Test: A test in which the role of language is minimised, the task requiring overt motor responses other than verbal. Planning: In Das PASS model of intelligence, it involves goal setting, strategy selection, and monitoring of goal-oriented. Problem-solving Behaviour: The activity and mental processes involved in overcoming the obstacles, physical or conceptual, which lie between an animal and its goal. Psychological Test: An objective and standardised in instrument for measuring an individual’s mental and behavioural traits; used by psychologists to help people make decisions about their lives and understand more about themselves. Self-awareness: Insight into one’s own motives, potential and limitation. Sensitivity: Tendency to respond to very low levels of physical stimulation. – Simultaneous Processing: Cognitive processing in the PASS model that involves integrating elements of the stimulus situation into composite and meaningful patterns. Situationism: A principle which states that situations and circumstances outside oneself have the power to influence behaviour. Successive Processing: Cognitive processing in the PASS model where elements of the stimulus situation are responded to sequentially. Values: Refers to the enduring beliefs about an ideal made of behaviour. Verbal Test: Test in which a subject’s ability understand in making use of words and concepts is important in making the required responses.
