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M.A. PSYCHOLOGY

FIRST YEAR

PRACTICAL FILE

MPCL-

1) BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT BY BANDURA

Aim: Bandura (1961) conducted a controlled experiment study to investigate if social behaviours (i.e. aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation. Introduction: Learning is a remarkably complex process that is influenced by a wide variety of factors. As most parents are probably much aware, observation can play a critical role in determining how and what children learn. Albert Bandura proposed a social learning theory which suggests that observation and modeling play a primary role in this process. Bandura’s theory moves beyond behavioural theories, which suggest that all behaviours are learned through conditioning and cognitive theories, which take into account psychological influences such as attention and memory. Description of the Test: Bandura along with others tested 36 boys and 36 girls from Standford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6 years old. The researchers pre-tested the children for how aggressive they were by observing the children in the nursery and judged their aggressive behaviour on four 5-point rating scales. It was then possible to match the children in each group so that they had similar levels of aggression in their everyday behaviour. The experiment is therefore an example of matched pairs design.

To test the inter-rater reliability of the observers, 51 of the children were rated by two observers independently and their ratings compared. These ratings show a very high reliability correlation (r=0.89), which suggested that the observers had a good agreement about the behaviour of the children. Answer the following questions: a) Difference between Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory: Social Learning Theory is a learning theory that proposes that learning occurs in the social context via observing and imitating the behaviour of a model along with the consequences of that behaviour. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. Learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments. The theory expands on traditional behaviour theories, in which behaviour is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning individual. Social Cognitive Theory is the expanded form of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory, used in psychology, education and communication holds that portions of an individual’s knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences and outside media influences. The theory states that when people observe a model performing behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour, they remember the sequences of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviours. Observing a model can also prompt the viewer to engage in behaviour they already learned. It also means that, people do not learn new behaviours solely by trying them and either succeeding or failing, but rather, the survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the actions of others. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behaviour and the outcome of the behaviour, the observer may choose to replicate behaviour modeled. There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can learn through observation. Next is the notion that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior. The concepts can be explained as: People Can Learn Through Observation One of the best-known experiments in the history of psychology involved a doll named Bobo. Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll.

Expectations: The likely outcomes of a behavior; meaning, the people behave in certain ways because of the results they expect as well as avoiding the behavior due to the expectations. Expectancies: the value placed on the outcome of the behavior; meaning, the certain behavior is more likely to occur when the expectancy, or value placed on its outcome, maximizes a positive result and minimizes a negative one. Emotional arousal: the emotional reaction to a situation and its resulting behavior; meaning, that in certain situations people become fearful and, when this happens, their behavior becomes defensive in an effort to reduce the fear. Behavioral capability: the knowledge and skills needed to engage in a particular behavior; meaning, before doing something, you have to know what it is you’re going to do and how to do it. Reinforcement: the rewards or punishments for doing something; meaning, the behavior occurs because people either want the reward or want to avoid the punishment. Focus of control: one’s belief regarding one’s personal power over life events; meaning, that this belief in the extent of personal control (internal to external) has an impact on health decisions, and thus on health behaviors. b) Applications of Social Learning Theory: Two areas of application of social learning theory in social work include research and intervention. Researchers can use the theory to understand how aggressiveness and violence can be transferred through observational learning. The theory can further be used to investigate how positive role models can foster desirable behaviors and promote social change. As an intervention tool, a social worker can implement social learning theory to influence positive new behaviors by altering the reinforcement whether positive or negative, associated with the source of the issue. If you are a current student in a social work program you will discover additional applications of social learning theory along with how to incorporate it with other social work theories, practices and techniques. Social learning theory can have a number of real-world applications. For example, it can be used to help researchers understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted through observational learning. By studying media violence, researchers can gain a better understanding of the factors that might lead children to act out the aggressive actions they see portrayed on television and in the movies.

But social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive behaviors. Researchers can use social learning theory to investigate and understand ways that positive role models can be used to encourage desirable behaviors and to facilitate social change. Social Learning in Organizations: Social learning in organizations is being applied extensively and is on the rise. In fact, it is becoming more common than formal learning, where the education is based on a rigid curriculum. The various forms of new learning methods that are taking the place of formal learning are online learning, mentorships, and social learning. All of these methods are non- traditional, but there are also more open, accessible, efficient and relevant for employees while giving them far more control and flexibility over how they learn than traditional learning methods. Social learning, in particular, is highly cost-effective because of its organic nature. This means it can happen anywhere and at any time. Social Learning can be used to teach Academic Writing: Interpreted in terms of an approach to the teaching of writing, the theory suggests that students can learn to write a particular text by observing closely the structural as well as the linguistic features of that text. Methodology/Technique – By observing how the text is written, students obtain an idea of how it is formed, and on later occasions they can use this information as a guide to produce similar texts. The sample of this study consists of 100 students from College University Poly-Tech MARA, Kuala Lumpur. The study adopts a pre/post-assessment of the students’ writing performances for three types of academic essays. T-tests were used to compare the results of the 3 pretests with the results of the 3 post-tests which were administered to the participants after they underwent each of the 3 treatment sessions. Findings – The study reveals that the Social Learning Theory speaks the truth about the human natural learning process. Thus, this implies that this potent theory is used in designing varying approaches to teaching students the skills to write academic texts. Novelty – The study suggests that observational learning of sample texts provides students with guidance on how to improve their writing as it makes them aware of the different ways texts are organized for different communicative purposes, thereby promoting their confidence and positive attitude towards writing." c) Based on this theory and its application, do you think violence is contagious? Yes, I think violence is contagious. Just like altruism and kindness can benefit the giver and the receiver, violence is harmful for everyone, the one doing it and the one at the receiving end. Violence once started spreads like fire too. Violence is similar to goodness, if children can emulate the goodness and kind actions of others, it will not take much time to learn one’s violent actions. For e.g.- If a man beats up his wife repeatedly at home, and the child witnesses all this, he will think it’s justified to be violent and may do similar acts at school or with peers.

Learn from experience : The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an important component of intelligence. Recognize problems : To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify possible problems in the environment that need to be addressed. Solve problems: People must then be able to take what they have learned to come up with a useful solution to a problem they have noticed in the world around them. Intelligence involves some different mental abilities including logic, reasoning, problem-solving, and planning. Theories of Intelligence: Different researchers have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of intelligence. Here are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years. General Intelligence: British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar.People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed. Primary Mental Abilities: Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different primary mental abilities. Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects Reasoning: The ability to find rules Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

Theory of Multiple Intelligences: One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ testing, did not fully and accurately depict a person's abilities. His theory proposed eight different intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures: Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body movements and to handle objects skillfully Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations, and desires of others Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes Logical-mathematical intelligence : The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the capacity to discern logically or numerical patterns Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants, and other objects in nature Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly Background of Intelligence Testing: During the early 1900s, the French government asked Binet to help decide which students were most likely to experience difficulty in school. The government had passed laws requiring that all French children attend school, so it was important to find a way to identify children who would need specialized assistance. Binet and his colleague, Theodore Simon, began developing questions that focused on areas not explicitly taught in schools, such as attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. Using these questions, Binet determined which ones served as the best predictors of school success. He quickly realized that some children were able to answer more advanced questions that older children were generally able to answer, and vice versa. Based on

Intelligence (WPPSI). The adult version of the test has been revised since its original publication and is now known as the WAIS-IV. Interpretation of Intelligence on Robert Sternberg’s article: According to Sternberg Intelligence is the ability to adapt to the environment. He felt that IQ tests are not indicators to assess the type of intelligence. He mentions that COVID-19 has taught us a lot about intelligence, he says that intelligence tests, problem solving and tests used for testing a person’s abilities doesn’t really determine how intelligent a person is, according to him a person should be able to solve the daily problems he encounters and how effectively he is able to do it. This will be able to show how truly intelligent a person is. Hence, Sternberg has given an example of fighting with COVID-19. Real life problems cannot be compared to the lab and standardized tests. Real life problems and situations are much tougher and challenging. The lab tests are just MCQ based, real life answers/solutions can be long and a proper solution cannot be given for it. You really need to use your intelligence while resolving real-life problems, whereas for standardized tests you are using your intelligence, maybe something from the subconscious mind, but you don’t need to put in extra effort to find a solution. Sternberg talks about adaptive intelligence and states that it is necessary for people to solve more realistic problems related to water and air pollution, global warming, discrimination, etc and other serious problems, rather than solving artificial verbal and math problem. Thus, Sternberg’s views are very practical and simple that can be applied by all. Conclusion: Researchers generally agree that intelligence involves abilities to learn and adapt to changing environment. They also agree that many intellectual abilities tend to be positively correlated. Sternberg’s article also tells us about the importance of intelligence while solving real-life problems. References: www.verywellmind.com

3) INTERVIEW WITH AN OLDER ADULT

1. To understand the process of ageing: The entire process of ageing is different for all the elderly adults. You should be prepared, maintain your health, eat well and exercise. Live a peaceful life by complaining less. In ageing, it is difficult to handle work, health doesn’t support you, and at times you feel lonely. Serious responsibility is avoided during this age. But there are some positive aspects too for a senior citizen, people speak to you politely, respect you, are there to help you always. 2. Family profile (parents, siblings, education, etc): Name- XYZ Born brought up in Pune. Father’s Occupation- Engineer Mother’s Occupation-Housewife Siblings- 4 sisters and 1 brother

4) LOCUS OF CONTROL

Aim: The main purpose of the research is to find out the relation of social-demographic factors (education, family status, professional activity and place of residence) and the type of locus of control. Introduction: Locus of control refers to the extent to which people feel that they have control over the events that influence their lives. When you are dealing with a challenge in your life, do you feel that you have control over the outcome? Or do you believe that you are simply at the hands of outside forces? If you believe that you have control over what happens, then you have what psychologists refer to as an internal locus of control. If you believe that you have no control over what happens and that external variables are to blame, then you have what is known as an external locus of control. Your locus of control can influence not only how you respond to the events that happen in your life, but also your motivation to take action.

If you believe that you hold the keys to your fate, you are more likely to take action to change your situation when needed. If on the other hand, you believe that the outcome is out of your hands, you may be less likely to work toward change. What Is Locus of Control? "A locus of control orientation is a belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal control (external control orientation)," explained psychologist Philip Zimbardo in his 1985 book Psychology and Life.In 1954, psychologist Julian Rotter suggested that our behavior was controlled by rewards and punishments and that it was these consequences for our actions that determined our beliefs about the underlying causes of these actions. Internal vs. External Locus of Control: It is important to note that locus of control is a continuum. No one has a 100 percent external or internal locus of control. Instead, most people lie somewhere on the continuum between the two extremes. These are characteristics of people with dominant internal or external locus of control. Internal Locus of Control: Are more likely to take responsibility for their actions Tend to be less influenced by the opinions of other people Often do better at tasks when they are allowed to work at their own pace Usually, have a strong sense of self-efficacy Tend to work hard to achieve the things they want Feel confident in the face of challenges Tend to be physically healthier Report being happier and more independent Often achieve greater success in the workplace External Locus of Control:

4. Check if the subject has omitted any item of the test. Introspective Report: I (Subject) did not face any problems will solving the test; I found it very easy, the person conducting the test made me feel very comfortable and I could solve the test easily. Scoring and Interpretation: The scoring and the interpretation of the test conducted online are as follows:

Discussion: This means that internal locus control is when the person attributes his success to his/her own abilities and external control is when he blames the surroundings. According to me one must take charge and responsibility of their own actions. Conclusion: Thus, locus of control is the degree to which people believe that they, as opposed to external forces, have control over the outcome of events in their lives. References : www.verywellmind.com