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Course Title: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Method
Research in Education
Course Instructor: Dr. Shahnaz Perveen
Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Method Research in Education Course Unit Code EDUC- 5005 Title Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Method Research in Education Credit Hours 3 Level MS Education Semester 2nd Learning Objectives After studying this course, the students will be able to:
- Understand the underlying assumptions of qualitative research
- Evaluate case studies
- Formulate research questions
- Design the proposal
- Conduct a qualitative research
- Analyze data by using appropriate techniques
- Draw conclusions and recommendations
- Write a research report Course Outline Unit 01: Quantitative Research Methods 1.1 Experimental 1.2 Correlational 1.3 Survey Unit 02: Qualitative Research Methods 2.1 Grounded theory 2.2 Ethnography 2.3 Narrative Unit 03: Mixed Method Research Designs 3.1 Convergent parallel design 3.2 Explanatory sequential design 3.3 Exploratory sequential design 3.4 Embedded design 3.5 Transformative design 3.6 Multiphase design Unit 04: Data Collection Instruments/Protocol 4.1 Development of data collection instruments in quantitative and qualitative. 4.2 The validity and reliability of data collection instruments
4.3 Data collection: procedures and considerations Unit 05: Data Analysis in quantitative research Measures of Central Tendency Mean Median Mode Measures of Dispersion Range Quartile deviation Standard deviation Measures of Relationship Correlation Normal distribution Percentile & percentile ranks Tests of significance Parametric tests Non- Parametric tests Introduction to the Analysis of Variance and Co-variance Introduction to analysis of variance Basic concepts in ANOVA Basic concepts in ANCOVA Multiple comparison procedures Measurement Scales Nominal Ordinal/ ranking Interval Ratio Use of SPSS Software for Data Analysis Basic functions of SPSS SPSS for Chi-square, T test, ANOVA SPSS for correlation analysis SPSS for regression analysis Unit 06: Data Analysis in qualitative research 1.1 What Is Content Analysis? 1.2 Categorization in Content Analysis 1.3 Steps Involved in Content Analysis 1.4 An Illustration of Content Analysis 1.5 Using the Computer in Content Analysis 1.6 An Example of a Content Analysis Study Unit 07: Discussion, Conclusions, Limitations, Future Research Unit 08: Report Writing a) Nature & style b) Typing style c) Format & language d) Evaluation of research thesis Recommended Books:
UNIT: 1 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
1.1 Experimental Research
Introduction The experimental method in educational research is the application and adaptation of the classical method of experimentation. It is a scientifically sophisticated method. It provides a method of investigation to derive basic relationships among phenomena under controlled condition or, more simply, to identify the conditions contributing the occurrence of a given phenomenon. Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will be, or what will occur, under carefully controlled conditions. Experimental research, also known as “true experimentation,” uses the scientific method to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between variables. This method uses controls for all of the crucial factors that could potentially affect the phenomena of interest. Using the experimental method, researchers randomly assign participants in an experiment to either the control or treatment groups. Experimenters manipulate certain stimuli, treatments, or environmental conditions and observe how the condition or behavior of the subject is affected or changed. Such manipulations are deliberate and systematic. The researchers must be aware of other factors that could influence the outcome and remove or control them in such a way that it will establish a logical association between manipulated factors and observed factors. Experimental research provides a method of hypothesis testing. Hypothesis is the heart of experimental research. After the experimenter defines a problem he has to propose a tentative answer to the problem or hypothesis. Further, he has to test the hypothesis and confirm or disconfirm it. Although, the experimental method has greatest utility in the laboratory, it has been effectively applied non-laboratory settings such as the classroom. The immediate purpose of experimentation is to predict events in the experimental setting. The ultimate purpose is to generalize the variable relationships so that they may be applied outside the laboratory to a wider population of interest. Definitions of Experimental Research
- Experimental research allows researchers to make cause-effect statements about their research studies.
- Ary, Jacobs & Sorensen (2010): Experimental research is a scientific investigation in which the researcher manipulates one or more independent variables, controls any other relevant variables, and observes the effect of the manipulations on the dependent variable(s).
- Creswell (2012): Experimental researchers test an idea (or practice or procedure) to determine its effect on an outcome. Researchers decide an idea with which to “experiment,” assign individuals to experience it (and have some individuals experience something different), and then determine whether those who experienced the idea or practice performed better on some outcome than those who did not experience it. Key Characteristics of Experimental Research Several key characteristics help us understand and read experimental research. Experimental researchers randomly assign participants to groups or other units. They provide control over extraneous variables to isolate the effects of the independent variable on the outcomes. They physically manipulate the treatment conditions for one or more groups. They then measure the outcomes for the groups to determine if the experimental treatment had a different effect than the non-experimental treatment. This is accomplished by statistically comparing the groups. Overall, they design an experiment to reduce the threats to internal validity and external validity. Experimentation: Many experiments involve single treatment or variable with two or more levels. First, a group of experimental subjects may be divided into independent groups, using a random method. Different treatment may be applied to each group. One group may be a control group, a group to which no treatment is applied. For meaningful interpretation of experiment, results obtained under treatment may be compared with results obtained in the absence of treatment. Comparison may be made between treatments and between treatment and a control.
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques ( nd Ed). New Delhi: New Age International Publishers.
1.2 Correlational Research
Correlational research is a type of non-experimental research method in which a researcher measures two variables, understands and assesses the statistical relationship between them with no influence from any extraneous variable. Our minds can do some brilliant things. For example, it can memorize the jingle of a pizza truck. The louder the jingle, the closer the pizza truck is to us. Who taught us that? Nobody! We relied on our understanding and came to a conclusion. We don’t stop there, do we? If there are multiple pizza trucks in the area and each one has a different jingle, we would memorize it all and relate the jingle to its pizza truck. his is what correlational research precisely is, establishing a relationship between two variables, “jingle” and “distance of the truck” in this particular example. The correlational study is looking for variables that seem to interact with each other.
When you see one variable changing, you have a fair idea of how the other variable will change. Example The correlation coefficient shows the correlation between two variables (A correlation coefficient is a statistical measure that calculates the strength of the relationship between two variables), a value measured between -1 and +1. When the correlation coefficient is close to +1, there is a positive correlation between the two variables. If the value is close to -1, there is a negative correlation between the two variables. When the value is close to zero, then there is no relationship between the two variables. An example to understand correlational research Consider hypothetically; a researcher is studying a correlation between cancer and marriage. In this study, there are two variables: disease and marriage. Let us say marriage has a negative association with cancer. This means that married people are less likely to develop cancer. However, this doesn’t necessarily mean that marriage directly avoids cancer. In correlational research, it is not possible to establish the fact, what causes what. It is a misconception that a correlational study involves two quantitative variables. However, the reality is two variables are measured, but neither is changed. This is true independent of whether the variables are quantitative or categorical. Types of Correlational Research Mainly three types of correlational research have been identified:
1. Positive Correlation: A positive relationship between two variables is when an increase in one variable leads to a rise in the other variable. A decrease in one variable will see a reduction in the other variable. For example, the amount of money a person has might positively correlate with the number of cars the person owns. 2. Negative Correlation: A negative correlation is quite literally the opposite of a positive relationship. If there is an increase in one variable, the second variable will show a decrease and vice versa.
Naturalistic observation is a way of data collection in which people’s behavior is observed in their natural environment, in which they typically exist. This method is a type of field research. It could mean a researcher might be observing people in a grocery store, at the cinema, playground, or similar places. Researchers who are usually involved in this type of data collection make observations as unobtrusively as possible so that the participants involved in the study are not aware that they are being observed else they might deviate from being their natural self. Ethically this method is acceptable if the participants remain anonymous, and if the study is conducted in a public setting, a place where people would not normally expect complete privacy. As mentioned previously, taking an example of the grocery store where people can be observed while collecting an item from the aisle and putting in the shopping bags. This is ethically acceptable, and that is the reason most researchers choose public settings for recording their observations. This data collection method could be both qualitative or quantitative. Archival Data Another approach to correlational data is the use of archival data. Archival information is the data that has been previously collected by doing similar kinds of research. Archival data is usually made available through primary research.
1.3 Survey Research
Descriptive research, also called survey research, involves collecting data to answer questions about the current status of issues or topics. Descriptive research is carried out to obtain information about the preferences, attitudes, practices, concerns or interests of some group of people. For example, a survey is conducted about the public’s perception/opinion of the quality of its local schools. Descriptive research attempts to describe, explain and interpret conditions of the present i.e. ‘what is’. The purpose of a descriptive research is to examine a phenomenon that is occurring at a specific place(s) and time. A descriptive research is concerned with conditions, practices, structures, differences or relationships that exist, opinions held, and processes that are going on or trends that are evident. Descriptive research (survey) data are mainly collected from tests and questionnaires that research participants self-administer and fill out. Another common form of survey data is the telephone interview. Increasingly we are receiving phone calls from organizations of companies that want to obtain our opinions of their organization or product. Usually they read questions and ask us to choose from a limited number of categories: Select your answer from these choices: highly favorable, favorable, neutral, unfavorable, or highly unfavorable. Census: A survey that covers the entire population of interest is referred to as a census, an example of which is the Pakistan Census, undertaken by the government every 10 years. Population:
population is essential for identifying the appropriate subjects to select and for knowing to whom the results can be generalized. Once the population has been defined, the researcher must obtain or construct a complete list of all individuals in the population. This list, called the sampling frame, can be very difficult and time-consuming to construct if such a list is not already available.
- Sampling. Because researchers generally cannot survey an entire population, they select a sample from that population. It is very important to select a sample that will provide results similar to those that would have been obtained if the entire population had been surveyed. In other words, the sample must be representative of the population. The extent to which this happens depends on the way subjects are selected. The sampling procedure that is most likely to produce a representative sample is some form of probability sampling. Probability sampling permits you to estimate how far sample results are likely to differ from the population values.
- Constructing the instrument. A major task in survey research is constructing the instrument that will be used to gather the data from the sample. The two basic types of data-gathering instruments are interviews and questionnaires.
- Conducting the survey. Once the data-gathering instrument is prepared, it must be field tested to determine if it will provide the desired data. Also included in this step are training the users of the instrument, interviewing subjects or distributing questionnaires to them, and verifying the accuracy of the data gathered.
- Processing the data. The last step includes coding the data, statistical analysis, interpreting the results, and reporting the findings. Suggested Readings Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (2nd^ Ed). New Delhi: New Age International Publishers.
UNIT 02: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
2.1 Grounded Theory
Grounded theory is a qualitative research approach that attempts to uncover the meanings of people’s social actions, interactions and experiences. These explanations are called ‘grounded’ because they are grounded in the participants’ own explanations or interpretations. Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss originated this method in their 1967 book, The Discovery of Grounded Theory. The grounded theory approach has been used by researchers in various disciplines, including sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics and public health. Grounded theory qualitative research was considered path-breaking in many respects upon its arrival. The inductive method allowed the analysis of data during the collection process. It also shifted focus away from the existing practice of verification, which researchers felt didn’t always produce rigorous results. Let’s take a closer look at grounded theory research.
**1. WHAT IS GROUNDED THEORY?
- HOW TO CONDUCT GROUNDED THEORY RESEARCH
- FEATURES OF GROUNDED THEORY
- GROUNDED THEORY EXAMPLE
- ADVANTAGES OF GROUNDED THEORY
- DISADVANTAGES OF GROUNDED THEORY WHAT IS GROUNDED THEORY?** Grounded theory is a qualitative method designed to help arrive at new theories and deductions. Researchers collect data through any means they prefer and then analyze the facts to arrive at concepts. Through a comparison of these concepts, they plan theories. They continue until they reach sample saturation, in which no
STAGE 3: As the categories develop, they are compared with one another and two or more competing theories are identified STAGE 4: The final step involves the construction of the research hypothesis statement or concept map Grounded theory is a relatively recent addition to the tools at a researcher’s disposal. There are several methods of conducting grounded theory research. The following processes are common features:
1. CODING Grounded theory starts with codes. These are sets of words used to describe the meaning of a phenomenon. They are recorded through interviews, observations and other data sources. The codes can be discovered by looking for themes within a specific event or from a larger population. After the codes have been made, the researcher must select concepts that represent each code. 2. THEORETICAL MEMOING This is an internal process of organizing the data, forming concepts and testing the validity of the research. The researcher must have a good understanding of their theoretical position before this occurs. A good way to theorize is to look at some existing theory or analysis that seems interesting and attempt to develop a connection between it and the new research. 3. COMPILE FINDINGS A final step is to write up the findings after a theory is developed from the data. The researcher can also write a tentative hypothesis from their research findings. Data collection in the grounded theory method can include both quantitative and qualitative methods. FEATURES OF GROUNDED THEORY By now, it’s clear that grounded theory is unlike other research techniques. Here are some of its salient features: 1. IT IS PERSONAL This method asks researchers to spend time with participants, observe them in situations, interview them individually or in groups, ask each participant certain questions about their experiences, observations, or other sources that are related to the study. 2. IT IS FLEXIBLE
One of the most important principles of grounded theory research is to focus on the participants’ own interpretations and explanations. For example, a researcher might not predict the meaning of a person’s behavior at first glance, but after listening closely to their explanation of what happened during the interview, they might discover that one or more meanings exist that were previously unknown or unappreciated. These interpretations and explanations are known as constructs.
3. IT STARTS WITH DATA The grounded theory approach often begins with a case study; in which we observe a person or group in action. The researcher forms a tentative definition of their construct through analysis of cases. This case analysis is later used to create a hypothesis, which might explain the construct. All hypotheses must prove their validity in order to be accepted as an explanation. 4. DATA IS CONTINUALLY ASSESSED The researcher creates an interview guide through which participants give their responses. The interview guide that the researcher creates can then be used as a form of measurement itself. Each interview guide has a set of questions, which are asked in such a way as to elicit the meaning of the construct. Then this definition is analyzed and any discrepancies between the cases and interviews are looked for. Researchers then look at the data gathered to see if the construct is true, false, or somewhat applicable. Grounded theory qualitative research is a dynamic and flexible approach to research that answers questions other formats can’t. GROUNDED THEORY EXAMPLE Grounded theory can be used in organizations to create a competitive advantage for a company. Here are some grounded theory examples: Grounded theory is used by marketing departments by letting marketing executives express their views on how to improve their product or service in a structured way Grounded theory is often used by the HR department. For instance, they might study why employees are frustrated by their work. Employees can
Because grounded theory emphasizes the interpretation of the data, it makes it easier for researchers to examine their own preconceived ideas about a topic and critically analyze them. DISADVANTAGES OF GROUNDED THEORY As with any method, there are some drawbacks too that researchers should consider. Here are a few: It doesn’t promote consensus because there are always competing views about the same phenomenon It may seem like an overly theoretical approach that produces results that are too open-ended. Grounded theory isn’t concerned with whether something is true/false or right/wrong Grounded theory requires a high level of skill and critical thinking from the researcher. They must have a level of objectivity in their approach, ask unbiased, open-minded questions and conduct interviews without being influenced by personal views or agenda.
2.2 Ethnographic Research
1. Introduction Ethnography is a study through direct observation of participants in their natural environment rather than in a lab. The objective of this type of research is to gain insights into how participants interact with things in their natural environment.
Ethnography is a qualitative research study looking at the social interaction of participants in a given environment. This research provides an in-depth insight into the participant’s views and actions along with the sights and sounds they encounter during their day. It provides the researcher with an understanding of how those participants see the world and how they interact with everything around them. Ethnography methods include direct observation, diary studies, video recordings, photography and artefact analysis such as devices that a person uses throughout the day. Observations can be made anywhere from the participant’s workplace, their home or while they are out with family and friends. The length of the studies can vary depending on the research that is being conducted. They can range from a couple of hours of observation, to studies that last several months.
2. Definitions of Ethnography Research Fetterman (1998) Ethnography is the art and science used to describe a group or culture. Angrosino (2007) Ethnographers search for predictable patterns in the lived human experiences by carefully observing and participating in the lives of those under study. 3. Data Collection in Ethnography There are three modes of data collection in ethnography: observation, interviewing and archival research. Observation: Participant observation is unique in that it combines the researcher’s participation in the lives of the people under study while also maintaining a professional distance (Fetterman, 1998). According to Angrosino (2007), observation is the act of perceiving the activities and interrelationships of people in the field setting. Interviewing : Interviewing is the process of directing a conversation to collect information (Angrosino, 2007). Archival research : This is the analysis of existing materials stored for research, service or other purposes officially and unofficially. 4. What Should We Do Before We Get Started? There are general activities that need to done before getting started. First, researcher need to identify their research question. This can be done by asking the
