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Critical Essay
R OBERT C ROSSLEY
University of Massachusetts at Boston
“What tangled skeins are the genealogies of slavery!” Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl
I
First-person American slave narratives should have ceased being written when the last American citizen born into institutionalized slavery died. But the literary form has persisted, just as the legacy of slavery has per- sisted, into the present. The second half of the twentieth century saw the rise of what has been christened the “neo-slave narrative,” a fictional mutation of the autobiographies of nineteenth-century Americans who lived as slaves. Among the many historical novels, often with first-person narrators, that have recreated the era of slavery, some of the best known are Margaret Walker’s Jubilee (1966), David Bradley’s The Chaneysville Incident (1981), Sherley Anne Williams’s Dessa Rose (1986), Toni Mor- rison’s Beloved (1987), and Charles R. Johnson’s Middle Passage (1990). Octavia Butler’s hybrid of memoir and fantasy is a distinctive contribu- tion to the genre of neo-slave narrative. Although Kindred is not itself a work of science fiction, Butler has brought to the creation of this narrative the sensibilities of an author who works largely outside the tradition of realism. When Kindred first appeared twenty-five years ago, no one had thought of using the fictional conventions of time travel to transport a modern African American to an antebellum plantation. Time-traveling
narratives are always replete with paradoxical questions: If you travel back a century and a half and kill your own great-great-grandfather, can you yourself ever be born? Is it as possible for the future to influence the past as it is for the past to shape the future? But then every good work of fiction is paradoxical: It lies like the truth. Kindred begins and ends in mystery. On June 9, 1976, her twenty-sixth birthday, Edana Franklin, is overcome by nausea while moving with her white husband, Kevin, into a new house in the Los Angeles suburbs. Abruptly she finds herself kneeling on a riverbank, hears a child scream- ing, runs into the river to save him, performs artificial respiration, and as the boy begins breathing she looks up into a rifle barrel. Again she sick- ens and finds herself back once more in her new house, but soaking wet and covered in mud. She has not hallucinated; she has been transported, physically as well as psychically. This inexplicable, nightmarish transit from one place to another is the first of six such episodes of varying dura- tion that make up the bulk of the novel. Sometimes Dana (the shortened form of her name she prefers) is transported alone, sometimes with Kevin; but the dizzy spells that immediately precede her movements occur with- out warning, and she is returned to Los Angeles only when she believes her life is threatened. The second time this happens, Dana discovers that she is moving not simply through space but into the past as well—to the Maryland plantation of a slave owner who is her own distant ancestor. Dana’s involuntary trips to the past, like convulsive memories dislocat- ing her in time, occupy only a few minutes or hours of her life in 1976, but her stay in the alternative time is stretched as she lives out an imposed remembrance of things past. Because of this dual time level a brief absence from Los Angeles may result in months spent in the nineteenth century, observing and suffering the backbreaking field work, enduring verbal abuse, whippings, and other daily brutalities of enslavement. Rufus Weylin, the child Dana rescues from drowning on her first trip to her ancestral home, periodically “calls” her from the present, whenever his life is in danger. As he grows older he becomes more repugnant and dan- gerous, but she must try to keep him alive until he and a slave woman named Alice Greenwood conceive a child, Hagar, who will initiate Dana’s own family line. Only upon Weylin’s death can Dana return permanently to 1976, but she comes back without her left arm. This is the shocking premise on which Kindred depends, and the author makes no effort to rationalize it. That is, Butler does not attempt to explain what she describes so graphically at the end of the sixth chapter: How could Dana’s
disturbed by the intersection of story and history rather than reassured by a tale that solves all the mysteries. She did not need to show off a tech- nological marvel of the sort Wells provided to mark his traveler’s path through time; instead, Kindred evokes the terrifying and nauseating voy- age that looms behind every American slave narrative: the Middle Pas- sage from Africa to the slave markets of the New World. In her experience of being kidnapped in time and space, Dana recapitulates the dreadful, disorienting voyage of her ancestors, just as her employment in 1976 through a temporary job agency—“We regulars called it a slave market,” Dana says with grouchy irony (p. 52)—operates as a benign, ghostly ver- sion of institutional slavery’s auction block. In many ways Kindred , set in a historical past scrupulously researched by the author, departs from Butler’s characteristic kind of fiction. With the exception of Wild Seed (1980), all her other novels, from Patternmaster (1975) through Parable of the Talents (1998), have been situated in the future, often a damaged future, and have focused on power relationships between “normal” human beings and human mutants or extrasolar aliens. But if Kindred has some surface differences from the rest of Butler’s fiction, at its deepest levels it is a central text in her exploration of the webs of power and affection in human relationships, of the ethical imper- ative and the emotional price of empathy, of the difficult struggle to move beyond alienation to connection. In all her fiction she has produced para- bles that speak to issues of cultural difference, whether sexual, racial, political, economic, or psychological, and to issues of mastery and self- mastery. Kindred shares imagery with Butler’s futuristic novels, in partic- ular with Parable of the Talents , whose electronically controlled collars and neurological “lashings” are but science-fictional extrapolations of the plantation owners’ coffles and whippings. In both novels the degradations of slavery are a constant, as is the determination of the victims whose lives are under total control to resist and escape. But Kindred is techni- cally a much sparer story, without the multiple narrative perspectives of the later book, and without any of the conceptual or technological appa- ratus usually associated with science fiction. Apart from its single fantas- tic premise of instantaneous movement through time and space, Kindred is consistently matter-of-fact in presentation and depends on the author’s reading of authentic slave narratives, her assimilation of data from research at libraries and historical societies, the maps she used to plot her characters’ movements, and her visits to the Talbot County, Maryland, sites of the novel. Butler herself has repeatedly insisted that Kindred
should be read as a “grim fantasy,” not as science fiction, since there is “absolutely no science in it.” She has also remarked that such generic labels are often more useful as marketing categories than as reading pro- tocols.^4 Like Kafka’s Metamorphosis or Anna Kavan’s Ice , Butler’s novel is an experiment that resists easy classification, and like other neo-slave narratives it blurs the usual boundaries of genre.
II
When she enrolled in a summer workshop for novice science-fiction writ- ers in 1970 at the age of twenty-three, Octavia Estelle Butler took a deci- sive step toward satisfying an ambition she had cherished since she was ten. An only child whose father died when she was a baby, Butler was aware very early of women struggling to survive. Her maternal grand- mother told stories of unrelenting labor in the canefields of Louisiana while raising seven children. Her mother, Octavia M. Butler, had been working since the age of ten and spent all her adult life earning a living as a housemaid. As the author told Veronica Mixon in an interview just before Kindred appeared, the experiences of the women in her family influenced her youthful reading and her earliest efforts at writing: “Their lives seemed so terrible to me at times—so devoid of joy or reward. I needed my fantasies to shield me from their world.”^5 The powerful imag- inative impulse that produced Kindred had its first test runs in the escapist fantasies of a child who needed to find or invent alternative realties. By temperament and by virtue of her strict Baptist upbringing, Butler was reclusive; imaginary worlds solaced her against the pinched rewards of the actual world, and books took the place of friends. From the age of six the public library became her second home and writing became her “pos- itive obsession.”^6 Kindred , however, is anything but an escapist fantasy. If as a girl But- ler needed to put some distance between herself and the soul-shrinking realities of her mother’s life, she nevertheless always had her eyes open. What she saw as a child she later confronted and reshaped as a novelist. When her mother couldn’t find or afford a babysitter, young Octavia was often taken along to work. Even then she observed the long arm of slav- ery: the degree to which her mother operated in white society as an invis- ible woman and, alarmingly, the degree to which she accepted and inter- nalized her status. “I used to see her going in back doors, being talked
ical and psychological realities. As fictional memoir, Kindred is Butler’s contribution to the literature of memory every bit as much as it is an exer- cise in the fantastic imagination. The artfulness of Kindred is the product of a single-minded and largely isolated literary apprenticeship. In her younger years Butler lived for her trips to the library, but her family paid little attention to what she read. Her teachers were unreceptive to the science-fiction stories she occasionally submitted in English classes. Her schoolmates also found her tastes in reading and writing strange and, increasingly, Butler kept her literary interests to herself. In adolescence she immersed herself in the science- fictional worlds of Theodore Sturgeon, Leigh Brackett, and Ray Bradbury, and the absence of black women writers from the genre did not deter her own ambitions: “Frankly, it never occurred to me that I needed someone who looked like me to show me the way. I was ignorant and arrogant and persistent and the writing left me no choice at all.”^9 In the 1940s and 1950s no black writers and almost no women were visibly publishing science fiction. Not surprisingly, few black readers— and, we can assume, very few black girls—found much to interest them in the science fiction of the period, geared as it was toward white adoles- cent boys. Some of it was provocatively racist, including Robert Hein- lein’s The Sixth Column (1949), whose heroic protagonist in a future race war was unsubtly named Whitey. The highest honor available for a char- acter of color in such novels was sacrificing his life for his white com- rades, as do an Asian soldier named Franklin Roosevelt Matsui in The Sixth Column and the one black character in Leigh Brackett’s story “The Vanishing Venusians” (1944). Other books tried resolutely to be “color- blind,” imagining a future in which race no longer was a factor; novels like Arthur C. Clarke’s Childhood’s End (1953) embodied the white lib- eral fantasy of a single black character functioning amiably and unself- consciously in a predominantly white society. A diligent reader in the 1950s, searching for science-fiction novels with something more than a patronizing image of black assimilation on white terms, could have turned up only a few texts in which race was acknowl- edged and allowed to shape the novel’s thematic and ideological con- cerns.^10 Perhaps the most interesting example is a chapter in a book that Butler read in her youth, Bradbury’s Martian Chronicles (1950). Titled “Way in the Middle of the Air,” it is the story of a mass emigration of black Southerners to Mars in the year 2003. The Southern economy and the cultural assumptions of white supremacy are devastated when the
entire black populace unites to ensure that all members of the community can pay their debts and arrive at the rocket base in time for the great exo- dus. Barefoot white boys report in astonishment this unanticipated strat- egy for a black utopia: “Them that has helps them that hasn’t! And that way they all get free!” In a speech that ironically skewers the myth of progress in African-American history, one petulant white man complains:
I can’t figure why they left now. With things lookin’ up. I mean, every day they got more rights. What they want, anyway? Here’s the poll tax gone, and more and more states passin’ anti-lynchin’ bills, and all kinds of equal rights. What more they want? They make almost as good money as a white man, but there they go.^11
“Way in the Middle of the Air” may be the single most incisive episode of black and white relations in science fiction by a white author. But its very rarity demonstrates how alien the territory of American science fiction in its so-called golden age, after the second world war, was for black readers and for aspiring writers like Octavia Butler. She has often observed, in response to questions about her nearly unique status as an African-American woman writing science fiction, that you have to be a reader before you can be a writer. Butler’s formative years and her early career coincide with the years when American science fiction took down the “males only” sign over the door. Major expansions and redefinitions of the genre have been accom- plished by such writers as Ursula K. LeGuin, Joanna Russ, Pamela Sar- gent, Alice Sheldon (writing under the pseudonym of James Tiptree, Jr.), Pamela Zoline, Marge Piercy, Joan Slonczewski, and Butler herself. The alien in much of the fiction by women has been not a monstrous figure from a distant planet but the invisible alien within modern, familiar, human society: the woman as alien, sometimes—more specifically—the black woman, the Chicana, the housewife, the lesbian, the woman in poverty, or the unmarried woman. Sheldon’s famous story “The Women Men Don’t See” (1974), about a mother and daughter who embark on a ship with extraterrestrials rather than remain unnoticed and unvalued on Earth, is a touchstone for the reconception of the old science-fictional rep- resentations of the human image. “Science fiction,” Butler writes, “has long treated people who might or might not exist—extraterrestrials. Unfortunately, however, many of the same science-fiction writers who started us thinking about the possibility of extraterrestrial life did nothing to make us think about here-at-home human variation.”^12 As American women writers have abandoned the character types that predominated in
Fiction.” If any contemporary writer is responsible for Saunders’s change of heart, it is Octavia Butler. She has redrawn science fiction’s cultural boundaries and attracted new black readers—and potential writers—to this most distinctive of twentieth-century genres. More consistently than any other African-American author, she has deployed the genre’s conven- tions to tell stories with a political and sociological edge to them, stories that speak to issues, feelings, and historical truths arising out of African- American experience. In centering her fiction on women who lack power and suffer abuse but are committed to claiming power over their own lives and to exercising that power harshly when necessary, Butler has not merely used science fiction as a “feminist didactic,” in Beverly Friend’s terminology, but she has generated her fiction out of a black feminist aes- thetic. Her novels pointedly expose various chauvinisms (sexual, racial, and cultural), are enriched by a historical consciousness that shapes the depiction of enslavement both in the real past and in imaginary pasts and futures, and enact struggles for personal freedom and cultural pluralism. At the same time, Butler has been eager to avoid using her fiction as a soapbox. “Fiction writers can’t be too pedagogical or too polemical,” she told one interviewer.^13 The route she pursues to her readers’ heads is through their guts and nerves, and that requires good story-telling, not just a good set of issues. Science fiction and fantasy are a richly metaphorical literature. Just as Mary Shelley in Frankenstein invented a monstrous child born from a male scientist’s imagination as a metaphor for the exclu- sion of women from acts of creation, and just as Wells’s Time Machine used hairy subterranean Morlocks and effete aboveground Eloi as metaphors for the upstairs-downstairs class divisions of Victorian Eng- land, so Butler has specialized in metaphors that dramatize the tyranny of one species or race or gender over another. In Kindred the most powerful metaphor is time travel itself. Traveling to the past is a dramatic means to make the past live, to get the reader to live imaginatively in the recreated past, to grasp it as a felt reality rather than merely a learned abstraction. The chapter titles Butler has given to each of the major episodes of Kin- dred further invite the reader to respond metaphorically: “The River,” “The Fire,” “The Fall,” “The Fight,” “The Storm,” and “The Rope.” As one commentator has observed, these chapter headings suggest something elemental, apocalyptic, archetypal about the events in the narrative.^14 Kin- dred , after all, is not a documentary about racism, although the vividness of its invented details gives it a convincing “you are there” documentary power. But, finally, her work succeeds in engaging, terrifying, and mov-
ing readers because it is not fiction composed by agenda. White writers, Butler has pointed out, have tended to include black characters in science fiction only to illustrate a problem or as signposts to advertise the author’s distaste for racism; black people in much science fiction are represented as “other.”^15 All Butler’s fiction stands in quiet resistance to the notion that a black character in a science-fiction novel is there for a reason. In a Butler novel the black protagonist is there, like the mountain, because she is there. Although she does not hesitate to harness the power of fiction as fable to create striking analogies to the oppressive realities of our own present world, Butler also peoples her imagined worlds with black characters as a matter of course. While her frequent use of women as protagonists has brought attention to the black feminist aes- thetic she practices, it is just as important to notice that there is always a critical mass of characters of color in her novels. One of the exciting fea- tures of Kindred is its attentiveness both to the exceptional situation of an isolated modern black woman in a household under slavery and to her complex social and psychological relationships within the community of slaves she joins. Despite the severe stresses under which they live, the slaves constitute a rich human society: Dana’s proud and vulnerable ancestor, Alice Greenwood; the mute housemaid, Carrie; Sarah, the cook who nurses old grievances while kneading bread dough; young Nigel, whom Dana teaches to read from a stolen primer; Sam James, the field hand who begs Dana to teach his brother and sister; Alice’s husband, Isaac, mutilated and sold to Mississippi after a failed escape attempt; even Liza, the sewing woman, who betrays Dana to the master and is punished by the other slaves for her complicity with the white owners. Although the black community is persistently fractured by the sudden removal of its members through either the calculated strategy or the mere whim of their white controllers, that community always patches itself back together, drawing from its common suffering and anger a common strength. It is the white characters in the novel who seem odd, isolated, pathetic, alien. The most problematic white man in Kindred is not the Maryland slave owner but the liberated, modern Californian married to Dana. Kevin Franklin is a good man. He loves Dana, loathes the chattel system that governs every feature of antebellum life in Maryland, and works with the Underground Railroad while he is trapped in the past. Yet he is by gender and race implicated in the supremacist culture. Throughout the novel But- ler ingeniously suggests parallels between Rufus Weylin and Kevin Franklin: their facial expressions, their language, even after a time their
she observes “a girl and boy, sitting on the floor eating with their fingers. I was glad to see them there because I’d read about kids their age being rounded up and fed from troughs like pigs. Not everywhere, apparently, not here” (p. 72). Although she does not name her literary source, Dana is recalling an episode from chapter 5 of Frederick Douglass’s 1845 Narra- tive (a work Butler read carefully during her research for Kindred ) that describes feeding time at Colonel Lloyd’s plantation:
Our food was coarse corn meal boiled. This was called mush. It was put into a large wooden tray or trough, and set down upon the ground. The children were then called, like so many pigs, and like so many pigs they would come and devour the mush; some with oyster-shells, others with pieces of shingle, some with naked hands, and none with spoons.^18
Mistakenly, because the food and the treatment of children are better than Douglass’s Narrative seemed to promise, Dana behaves as if the cook- house is a sanctuary. That error in judgment leads to her first vicious flogging, when she is discovered teaching slave children to read. After her second whipping by Rufus Weylin’s father following her attempted flight from the plantation, she reflects angrily as another slave woman salves her wounds, “Nothing in my education or knowledge of the future had helped me to escape” (p. 177). Books had not taught her why so many slaves accepted their condition, nor had books defined the kind of bravery pos- sible in the humiliating situation of being owned. Films, Dana finds, are even less reliable guides to the past. Hollywood production values and the comfort of a theater seat insulate viewers from material purported to be historically accurate. Dana recalls witnessing the beating of a slave hunted out one night by white patrollers and how she crouched in the underbrush a few yards away from the man’s young daughter. The slave’s crime was being found in bed with his own free- born wife without having written permission from his owner:
I could literally smell his sweat, hear every ragged breath, every cry, every cut of the whip. I could see his body jerking, convulsing, straining against the rope as his screaming went on and on. My stomach heaved, and I had to force myself to stay where I was and keep quiet. Why didn’t they stop! “Please, Master,” the man begged. “For Godsake, Master, please …” I shut my eyes and tensed my muscles against an urge to vomit. I had seen people beaten on television and in the movies. I had seen the too- red blood substitute streaked across their backs and heard their well- rehearsed screams. But I hadn’t lain nearby and smelled their sweat or heard them pleading and praying, shamed before their families and themselves. I was probably less prepared for the reality than the child crying not far from me. (p. 36)
At such moments of first-person intensity, Kindred reveals its own liter- ary kinship with the memoirs of ex-slaves published in the nineteenth cen- tury, for Butler’s greatest achievement in the novel is collapsing the gen- res of the fantastic travelogue and the slave narrative. She incorporates into Kindred both narrative strategies of the classic memoirs of former slaves and occasional deliberate verbal and situational echoes of those texts. In doing so she establishes a degree of authenticity and seriousness rarely attained by contemporary writers mining the conventions of the Wellsian time-travel story. Reconstructing Womanhood , Hazel V. Carby’s feminist revision of the traditions of American black women’s writing, contrasts the image of the slave woman as victim in men’s slave memoirs with a very different image that emerges in such autobiographies as Harriet Jacobs’s Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl , Lucy Delany’s From the Darkness Cometh Light , and Mary Prince’s History of Mary Prince, a West Indian Slave. In those narratives, Carby argues, women define themselves as agents rather than as mere victims, and they record the brutality of their treatment by their owners in order to emphasize their resistance to victimization and their claim to freedom. Dana, Butler’s fictive autobiographer, extends that ideology and aesthetic of the slave woman’s memoir into the late- twentieth century. Much of Kindred is a record of endurance, but there are also numerous acts of heroism and humanity, culminating in the act of manslaughter in self-defense that finally liberates Dana, at terrible cost, from her tyrannical ancestor.^19 Chained to her ancestral past by the genealogical link that requires her to keep the oppressive slave master alive until her own family is initiated, Dana works out the ethic of compromise that Harriet Jacobs tolerated to safeguard her children and herself. Despite her feelings of repugnance and shame, Jacobs compromised the sexual standards imposed on nineteenth- century women in order to maintain her central core of integrity and free- dom of will; she reluctantly practiced a situational ethics dictated by the extreme circumstances that constrained the ethical choices of black women under slavery. As several commentators on Jacobs’s memoir have argued, the crucial sentence around which our understanding of Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl must be fashioned is her retrospective revision of the ethical norms that govern a woman’s choices and behaviors under systematic oppression: “Still, in looking back, calmly, on the events of my life, I feel that the slave woman ought not to be judged by the same stan- dard as others.” 20 Butler’s Dana must move painfully toward a similar eth-
possible degradation. As though the Germans had been trying to do in only a few years what the Americans had worked at for nearly two hun- dred” (p. 117). The systematic horrors of American slavery could have provided a model for that later programmed oppression and genocide. Like Dana and Kevin, the reader of Kindred may discover a closer kin- ship with the characters and events of the antebellum South than we often care to admit. And just as Dana feels compelled in the novel’s epilogue to travel to contemporary Maryland and “touch solid evidence that those people existed” (p. 264), readers of this fantastic invention may also find their felt understanding of history enriched and deepened. In Kindred Octavia Butler has designed her own underground railroad between past and present whose terminus is the reawakened imagination of the reader.
Notes
- Kenan, 498.
- Salvaggio in Barr, et al., 33.
- Rushdy’s “Families of Orphans” comments astutely on the concept of home in Kindred ; the chapter on Kindred in his later book, Remembering Generations , makes an extensive analysis of family as a social construct. For the most compre- hensive discussions of Kindred and history see Govan’s “Homage to Tradition,” Levecq’s “Power and Repetition,” and Kubitschek’s chapter in Claiming the Heritage.
- Beal, 14; Kenan, 495; Potts, 336–37. Not all her critics have been willing to accept Butler’s disclaimer, and some have seen genetics and sociobiology, not physics, as the sciences underlying Kindred. See the essays by Elyce Rae Helford and Nancy Jesser.
- Mixon, 12.
- See Butler’s essay “Positive Obsession” in Bloodchild and Other Stories , 125–35.
- Beal, 15; Rowell, 51.
- McCaffery, 65.
- Octavia Butler in a note to Beacon Press, 12 February 1988.
- George R. Stewart’s Earth Abides (1949), which imagines the evolution of a new culture in the aftermath of a biological catastrophe in North America, fea- tures a black matriarch who mothers the new society and warns against repeating the colonialist patterns of dominance and enslavement in the old culture. In More Than Human (1953), Theodore Sturgeon’s three linked novellas about social out- casts with psychic powers, twin black girls with telekinetic powers help form the alternative human community the novelist calls homo gestalt. In both books, how- ever, the black characters are largely stereotypical and play secondary roles to
white men.
- Bradbury, 96.
- Quoted by Govan, “Connections, Links, and Extended Networks,” 87, n. l2.
- McCaffery, 69.
- Kubitschek, 27.
- Harrison, 32–33. See also Butler’s short essay “The Monophobic Response.”
- Kenan, 497. For a similar blurring of past and present and of the identities of ancestral slaver and contemporary husband see Gayl Jones’s Corregidora (1975; rpt. Boston: Beacon Press, 1986).
- Kubitschek offers an alternative reading, suggesting that physical affinities between Kevin and Rufus actually point to fundamental differences in character.
- Douglass, 52.
- The conclusion of Kindred can be compared with the final episode of the other notable feminist time-travel novel of the 1970s, Marge Piercy’s Woman on the Edge of Time (1976), in which Consuela Ramos kills her doctors in self- defense, a revolutionary act made in the hope of bringing into being the utopian future she has visited.
- Jacobs, 56.
Select Bibliography Works by Octavia E. Butler
Adulthood Rites. New York: Warner Books, 1988. Bloodchild and Other Stories. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows,
- [In addition to the title story, this volume collects “The Evening and the Morning and the Night,” “Near of Kin,” “Speech Sounds,” and “Crossover” with two essays, “Positive Obsession” and “Furor Scribendi.”] Dawn. New York: Warner Books, 1987. “Future Forum.” Future Life 17 (March 1980): 60. Imago. New York: Warner Books, 1989. Kindred. 1979. Reprint. Boston: Beacon Press, 1988. Lilith’s Brood. New York: Aspect, 2000. [Collects in one volume Dawn , Adulthood Rites , and Imago .] “The Lost Races of Science Fiction.” Transmission (Summer 1980): 17–18. Mind of My Mind. New York: Doubleday, 1977; London: Sidgwick and
Govan, Sandra Y. “Connections, Links, and Extended Networks: Patterns in Octavia Butler’s Science Fiction.” Black American Literature Forum 18 (Fall 1984): 82–87. ———. “Homage to Tradition: Octavia Butler Renovates the Historical Novel.” MELUS 13 (Spring–Summer 1986): 79–86. Harrison, Rosalie G. “Sci-Fi Visions: An Interview with Octavia Butler.” Equal Opportunity Forum Magazine 8 (1980): 30–34. Helford, Elyce Rae. “‘Would You Really Rather Die Than Bear My Young?’: The Construction of Gender, Race and Species in Octavia E. Butler’s ‘Bloodchild.’” African American Review 28 (Summer 1994): 259–71. Jacobs, Harriet A. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written By Herself , ed. Jean Fagan Yellin. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987. Originally published 1861. Jesser, Nancy. “Blood, Genes and Gender in Octavia Butler’s Kindred and Dawn .” Extrapolation 43 (Spring 2002): 36–61. Kenan, Randall. “An Interview with Octavia E. Butler.” Callaloo 14 (Spring 1991): 495–504. Kubitschek, Missy Dehn. Claiming the Heritage: African-American Women Novelists and History. Jackson: University Press of Missis- sippi, 1991. Levecq, Christine. “Power and Repetition: Philosophies of (Literary) His- tory in Octavia E. Butler’s Kindred .” Contemporary Literature 41 (Spring 2000): 525–53. Long, Lisa. “A Relative Pain: The Rape of History in Octavia Butler’s Kindred and Phyllis Alesia Perry’s Stigmata .” College English 55 (February 1993): 135–57. McCaffery, Larry. “An Interview with Octavia E. Butler.” In Across the Wounded Galaxies: Interviews with Contemporary American Science Fiction Writers , Larry McCaffery, ed. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990. McKible, Adam. “‘These Are the Facts of the Darky’s History’: Thinking History and Reading Names in Four African American Texts.” African American Review 28 (Summer 1994): 223–35. Mixon, Veronica. “Futurist Woman: Octavia Butler.” Essence (April 1979): 12–15. O’Connor, Margaret Anne. “Octavia E. Butler.” Dictionary of Literary Biography , vol. 33: Afro-American Fiction Writers After 1955 , Tha- dious M. Davis and Trudier Harris, eds. Detroit: Gale, 1984.
Potts, Stephen W. “‘We Keep Playing the Same Record’: A Conversation with Octavia E. Butler.” Science-Fiction Studies 23 (November 1996): 331–38. Rowell, Charles. “An Interview with Octavia E. Butler.” Callaloo 20 (Winter 1997): 47–66. Rushdy, Ashraf. “Families of Orphans: Relation and Disrelation in Octavia Butler’s Kindred .” College English 55 (February 1993): 135–57. ———. Neo-Slave Narratives: Studies in the Social Logic of a Literary Form. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. ———. Remembering Generations: Race and Family in Contemporary African American Fiction. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. Salvaggio, Ruth. “Octavia Butler.” In Marleen Barr, et al. Suzy McKee Charnas, Octavia Butler, Joan Vinge. Mercer Island, Wash.: Starmont House, 1986. ———. “Octavia Butler and the Black Science-Fiction Heroine.” Black American Literature Forum 18 (Fall 1984): 78–81. Saunders, Charles R. “Why Blacks Don’t Read Science Fiction.” In Brave New Universe: Testing the Values of Science in Society , Tom Henighan, ed. Ottawa: Tecumseh Press, 1980. ———. “Why Blacks Should Read (and Write) Science Fiction.” In Dark Matter: A Century of Speculative Fiction from the African Diaspora , Sheree R. Thomas, ed. New York: Warner Books, 2000. Thomas, Sheree R., ed. Dark Matter: A Century of Speculative Fiction from the African Diaspora. New York: Warner Books, 2000. Washington, Mary Helen. “Meditations on History: The Slave Woman’s Voice.” In Invented Lives: Narratives of Black Women 1860–1960 , Mary Helen Washington, ed. New York: Doubleday, 1987.
