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Positive Language - can be done, read or hear things from the positive point of view, Language that creates goodwill and gives more options to receivers than negative language. Tone - your communication Goodwill - major concern Positive Letters - yes to the message receiver, can be done, direct, deductive approach Routine Letters - positive tone and clearly communicate whatever message is intended, using direct strategy and develop ideas in a straight forward manner. State immediately why you are writing, explain in body why you are writing, present details that explain your request or response. Specify what you want reader to do Negative Letters - reader knows reason for rejection, bad news is revealed with sensitivity, acceptance - understand/indirect pattern, maintain positive image, message clarity, protection (avoid liability) Persuasive Letters - message-receiver needs, wants, or may have interest in, Letters that attempt to influence the behavior and thinking of another person or group at the reading thereof Form Letters - personalized repetitive letters, letters with variable information, letters from form paragraphs Parts of memoranda - to, from, date, subject, and message, reply, signatures, and copy notation Consistency - basic rule of written communications Abstracting Techniques - photocopying and highlighting key points, preparation of a summary of key points in a document (such a summary in paraphrased from is called a précis) Primary Data - Original documents, information from files, interviews, questionnaires, personal observations, research studies, Facts collected specifically for the problem or project at hand.
Secondary Data - publication already in print (books, magazines, pamphlets, etc.), Information that already exists somewhere, having been collected for another purpose Reports are made up of the following - Prefatory Parts Introduction Body Summary Supplementary Data Prefatory Parts of a report - cover, title fly, title page, letter of authorization, letter of transmittal, table of contents, table of tables, and abstract Introduction of a report - presents information about the authorization for the report Body of a report - explanation and presentation of data, the bulk of the report or proposal. Summary, conclusion of a report - Summary of the report Supplementary Data/Appendices of a report - Appendix, bibliography, and index Direct Approach - The direct approach anticipates no resistance to its message--for instance, "you've been hired," "your order is being shipped today," or even "the project will be done in one week." In this case, organizing your message is simple. Memos and letters should have some kind of brief introduction, sometimes as its own paragraph. The introduction is simply a straightforward statement of the main point of the message. For instance, if you are writing a letter to confirm an order, simply begin by stating, "We have received your order and are shipping it today." Then the rest of the letter can provide details like shipping time, cost, etc. Whenever possible, use the direct approach. Most readers are in a hurry and want the main point up front. And if there's no reason for them to respond negatively, there's no reason to delay that main point. Keep in mind that the direct approach applies equally to letters, memos, and e-mail messages Indirect approach - Sometimes, your letter, memo, or e-mail message contains "bad news" of some type. One that strategically delays the bad news until your reader has been prepared to accept or deal with it in a positive way. In this instance, organizing your message can be a bit more complicated and call for a bit more strategy. Think of situations in which you've had to communicate bad news orally.
Progress Reports - Also known as status reports, keep the reader informed about activities, problems, and progress related to a large project. Large projects may require regular submission of reports-daily, weekly, or monthly. Justification reports - provide information, optain evaluations, and recommendations submitted to the individual who authorized the report's creation, explain or recommend something, such as the need for a purchase, an investment, additional staff, or a change in procedure or structure. Briefly provides background of the situation, introduces the recommendation(s), stresses the benefits of the action, and adds specifics. Minutes - coverage of meeting proceedings, A summary of the events and business conducted during a meeting. The official record of a meeting and are kept by the secretary of an organization. Summaries - consolidate and condense main conclusions, concepts, and ideas found in longer documents Outline for a report - include important points to cover and provide basic framework for report compilation Formal Reports - written from a third-person's point of view, contractions are not used (did not instead of didn't) and the passive voice approach is used; Use a formal writing style. Basic Outline: prefatory section, report body, terminal portion, and supplementary portion Footnotes - use raised numbers in the text that match with footnote references listed on the bottom to the same page; footnotes can also be listed numerically on separate pages at the end of the document Endnotes - numbered consecutively throughout the document (using superscripted numbers) Cited on a separate Notes page at the end of the document Bibliography - alphabetized list of sources utilized in preparation of the body of the material, A document showing all the sources used to research information. Conjunctions - and, but, or yet of a sentence, join words, phrases, and clauses Conjunctive Adverbs - also; besides; for example; however; in addition; instead; meanwhile; then; consequently; moreover; accordingly; furthermore; nevertheless; otherwise; yet; hence; therefore Coordinating Conjunctions - Connect words or groups of words that are used in the same way ex: and, but, for, no, so
Correlative Conjunctions - pairs of words that connect words, phrases or clauses. Examples: both...and, either....or, not only...but also. Adjectives - word used to modify or describe a noun or pronoun, such as "happy," "sad," or "pretty." Ex.: They live in a BEAUTIFUL house; A MATHEMATICAL puzzle; 1.I love that REALLY BIG OLD GREEN ANTIQUE car. Adverbs - describers of elements other than nouns (Ex. Patients often REST), Describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs; answer the questions: when, where, why, and how; often end in ly. Ex.:Financially, Willfully, Abruptly, and Endlessly Pronouns - Take the position and function of nouns but do not specifically name them - He, she, it, they, him, her, them Prepositions - a word that shows a relationship between nouns or pronouns and some other words in a sentence; Ex. You can sit BEFORE the desk (or IN FRONT of the desk). The professor can sit ON the desk (when he's being informal) or BEHIND the desk. Interjections - Words to express emotions: Examples: wow! My Goodness! Ouch! Word groups - units of meaning Clauses - A collection of words that has a subject that is actively doing a verb. Ex. since she laughs at diffident men, I despise individuals of low character Phrases - A collection of words that may have nouns or verbs, but it does not have a subject doing a verb. Ex.: leaving behind the dog, smashing into a fence, before the first test Punctuation marks - join things (Hyphen) separate things (commas, colons, semicolons, apostrophes, and dashes), group things by enclosing them (parentheses, dashes in pairs, quotation marks, and commas in pairs), and show the end of things (periods, exclamation marks, and question marks) Hyphen (-): - join certain prefixes to base words (self-mastery) Commas (,): - between clauses of a compound sentence, separate interrupting words, to set off an introductory element, to set off an afterthought, etc. Colons (:): - to direct attention to what occurs next Semicolon (;) - separate: Independent clauses that are not joined by a coordinator or correlative Independent clauses that are joined by a conjunctive adverb Independent clauses that are joined by a coordinator
Cowboys/Cowgirls Network Type - lowest communication needs, independent and decentralized Commanders Network Type - moderate communication needs, more centralized and need more information than independent decision makers. Cyber-Cowboys/Cowgirls Network Type - decentralized and well-connected decision makers Traditional Social Networks - developed by individuals on a one-to-one basis Electronic Social Networks - developed to connect individuals and organizations on a global basis with the focus placed on mutual interest Facebook - started in 2003, Mark Zuckerberg is the founder from Harvard University; to connect with current and past friends and associated around the globe;, The most popular social networking Web site with over 100 million active users. Users create personal "profiles" to represent themselves, listing interests and posting photos and communicating with others through private or public messages. Team - A group of people who work together to set goals, make decisions, solve problems, and put ideas into action. Functional team - A group of people from one department or area working together. Cross-Functional team - bringing members together from various functional areas and organizational levels Formal team - A team created by the organization as part of the formal organization structure. Informal team - group of individuals who get together outside of the formal organizational structure to accomplish a goal Functional Teams - formal team, ongoing groups made up of managers and employees from within the organization. Likert calls the role the linking pin function Self-Directed Teams (SDT) - Cross-functional work groups organized around work processes, that complete an entire piece of work requiring several interdependent tasks, and that have substantial autonomy over the execution of those tasks Self-managed work teams - 6 - 8 members, A type of work team that operates without a manager and is responsible for a complete work process or segment
Semi-autonomous teams - have managers who allow team members some autonomy (freedom) over their own positions; set their own goals Cross-functional teams - A group of people from different departments or areas working together. Task Teams - made up of members from different organizational department, task forces, or committees Types of task forces - standing committees, boards, Ad hoc committees, project matrix teams, venture groups Standing Committees - permanent groups dealing with ongoing organizational issues and activities; when member terms are completed, another person is assigned to the position Boards - corporate standing committees comprised of trustees or directors, who oversee the management of organizational assets, set and approve policies and objectives, and keep abreast of progress made toward the attainment of organizational objectives Ad hoc Committees - temporary task forces set up for a specific goal or purpose. Exist until the task is accomplished Project Matrix Teams - oversee the completion of a special custom-tailored product requiring exacting specifications. Each employee has a functional manager Venture groups - (project teams) plan entry into new service or business areas. One manages and are made up of specialists an managers from different organizational functional groups Special-purpose Teams - used to directly influence issues such as workplace safety, quality, and productivity Hot groups - small, dedicated, and high-achieving teams that work on challenging assignments Transnational Teams - individuals from various countries and their work can extend to various countries, teams composed of members of multiple nationalities working on projects that span multiple countries Problem-solving Teams - comprised of individuals from various areas of a department. Often called Quality Circles, project groups, safety groups, audit groups, or task forces. 6 - 12 members who meet once a week for an hour to consider ways to make improvements in quality, efficiency, or the overall work environment.
Formal Networks - top management team and members brought together from the different company functions, units, geographic regions, and various levels of the organization Informal Networks - persons interconnected on an informal basis Electronic Networks - various networks such as the Internet and other formal/informal networks are utilized to find answers to questions and obtain information for decision making and other purposes Learning Organizations - mend-set of an entity, designed to adapt and change on an ongoing basis Boundaryless Organizations - Horizontal Corporation by management experts, designed to avoid any specific predefined organizational structure, do not have the typical horizontal or vertical boundaries found in traditional organizations. Examples: Authority, Political, Task, and Identity R.B. Lacoursiere - developed 5 stage team development model: Orientation, Dissatisfaction, Resolution, Production, and Termination Orientation - team members experience some anxiety with regard to how they will fit into group. o Development Level: Low o Commitment: High o Team Member Competence: Low Dissatisfaction-team development model - team members become frustrated over their lack of competence. o Development Level: Moderate o Commitment: Low to moderate o Team member competence: low to moderate Resolution-team development model - work out difference o Development Level: High o Commitment: Variable o Team member competence: High Production-team development model - competence and commitment remain strong o Development Level: Excellent o Commitment: High o Team member competence: High Termination-team development model - task teams end o Development Level: Excellent o Commitment: High
o Team member competence: High Synergy - group's total output exceeds the sum of each person's contribution to the team Team member roles - Listener, Process Observe, Knowledge contributor, people supporter, collaborator, mediator, challenger, gatekeeper Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Studies - identified the Hawthorne effect. Performed in the 1920s &1930s. Hawthorne Studies - A. 1924 - series of studies at the Western Electric Company in Hawthorne, Illinoi, A series of research projects demonstrating that when workers perceived that management cared about them and/or when they felt they were getting special treatment, both morale and productivity improved. Douglas McGregor (McGregor's Influence) - Theory X (negative view of people) and Theory Y (positive view of people) approaches to individuals and human motivation. Human Side of Enterprise, McGregor - Characteristics of an effective work team: *Atmosphere is informal, comfy *A lot of discussion about work-related issues *Task are well understood & accepted *Members listen to each other *Disagreements occur *People freely express feelings and ideas Adams' Equity Theory - John Stacey Adams in 1963 Adams' Equity Theory - Theory is built on the belief that employees become demotivated towards their jobs and employer if they feel that their inputs are greater than their outputs. Inputs include effort, loyalty, commitment and skill. Outputs include financial rewards, recognition, security and sense of achievement. According to Adams, employers should attempt to achieve a balance on inputs and outputs. Jay Hall & Competence - Jay Hall 1980s Jay Hall & Competence - found that a majority of workers need to show their competence...need to perform well. Encouraged management to provide a positive work environment that enables people to reach their potential. Also found that high-achieving managers have a strong interest in both individuals and productivity. Leadership Grid - formally called the Managerial Grid by Robert Blake & Jane Mouton
*Assess strengths and weaknesses of the team *Develop specific goals *Obtain consensus on the goal *Invite and encourage team member accountability *Build the team through providing chances *Nurture trust Gainsharing Plan - shares rewards of the team's efforts with all team members Richard Hackman - expert on group effectiveness, 3 factors to consider in the team performance analysis process: 1 Determine whether the group's output are valued by their customers 2 Consider if the members of the group are in a position to continue working together. 3 Find out if team members are gaining satisfaction and growth Quality circles - groups of workers who meet regularly to discuss issues related to productivity, 6-12 employees and supervisors Diversity - gender, age, ethnicity, etc Differentiated roles - Different members have varied roles on teams. Their various positions are connected with expected behaviors for those positions Team Size - Social Loafing (act of individuals in large groups reducing their work effort) & Process Costs (costs of team coordination increase as the team becomes larger) Team Make Up - Homogeneous-similar Heterogeneous-different Differentiated Status - different levels of rank and status found among members of groups Role Ambiguity - if behaviors are not clearly defined, this takes place Role conflict - member of a group faces two or more opposing sets of expectation Team Norms - standards set by the team affecting and guiding team member behavior Critical events - times when something important happens, creating expectations for team member responses in the future Leadership Skills - Interpersonal, Conceptual, & Technical Interpersonal Leadership Skill - possession of emphatic, persuasive, and other positive interpersonal qualities
Conceptual Leadership Skill - ability to analyze, think logically, and use other mental aptitudes Technical Leadership Skill - attainment of specialized information or knowledge and an understanding of how it should be applied to meet the needs at hand Strategic Leadership - the ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility, think strategically, and work with others to initiate changes that will create a positive future for an organization Leadership Traits - Drive, Integrity & Honesty, Self-Confidence, Emotional Maturity, Desire to lead, Knowledge Ralph Stodgill's Trait Theory of Leadership - indicates that successful leaders usually are taller than followers, are intelligent, insightful, and have initiative Leadership Continuum - University of Michigan researchers. Three main leadership roles have been identified in connection with this continuum: Close Supervision, General Supervision, Laissez-Faire Supervision Close Supervision - a leadership style that includes close supervision wherein the leader checks subordinate work to be sure it adheres to standards General Supervision - a standard leadership style falling in the middle of the leadership continuum between close and laissez-faire leadership Laissez-Faire Supervision - a style involving little or no subordinate supervision Vroom, Jago, and Yetton - Created the leader-participation model that enables leaders to determine if they should use a participatory management style. First-leader has a set of management decision styles he/she can use Second-the manager needs to use a set of questions to diagnose the situation Finally-a decision tree is utilized to tell how much participation should be used under the circumstances Decision Tree - a chart that helps the manager determine how much participation should be used in a situation Power - the ability of an individual to influence other person's behavior Types of Power - Personal, Position, Reward, Coercive, Expert, Legitimate, and Referent Power Personal Power - power that is based on individual characteristics Position Power - power that is based on one's position or status in an organization
Unable and Willing followers - leaders should use the selling approach with these followers. Are excited to learn how to accomplish the task, open and receptive to input, pay attention... Leaders should give details, explain the role, provide for a two-way discussion to take place. Able and Unwilling followers - leaders should use the participating approach with these persons. Show that they have skill in needed areas, demonstrate hesitance to complete the task, desire feedback. Leaders should build and praise, request input, nurture two- way communications Able and Willing followers - leaders should use the delegating approach with these followers. Can work on thier own, will accomplish the work, keep the leader updated. Leaders should provide light supervision, delegate tasks Selling Style of leadership - leaders use this style when followers are not able but willing to do the task Telling Style of leadership - this style of leadership may be utilized when followers are unable and unwilling to do something or when they have a willingness to do the task but they do not know how to accomplish it Participating Style of leadership - followers have the ability to accomplish the task but are not willing to do the work or they need emotional support Delegating Style of leadership - followers want to do the job but they need help in the task's accomplishment Situation Control - whether or not the leader or the followers have more control over work situations Situational Leadership Model - Hersey and Blancard...includes 4 leadership styles: Autocratic, Consultative, Participative, and Laissez-faire Autocratic style - leader tells the follower what to do and closely oversees performance Consultative style - leader sells the follower on what needs to be done and oversees the job at major stages Participative style - leader obtains the participation of the follower and provides little direction Laissez-faire style - leader allows the follower to do the work with little input Locus of Leadership - intersection, or meeting point, of the following three factors involved in a leadership transaction: leader, follower, and the situation
Transactional Leadership - use of the authority of one's office to reward subordinate efforts. Guide followers in the direction of goal setting Transformational Leadership - involves leadership through providing a vision or mission for organizational members to work toward. Researchers Tichy and Devanna suggest that there are three stages in the transformational leadership process: need for change, shared vision is created, and the change is institutionalized Path-Goal Leadership/Expectancy Theory of Motivation - expectancy (valence) theory state that a person's motivation to do something is based on one's desire to do something and depends on whether or not he/she can accomplish what must be done. Path-Goal Leadership Theory incorporates four leadership styles - Directive, Supportive, Participative, and Achievement-Oriented Vertical Dyad Linkage Leadership Model - Goerge Graen. Vertical-up/down relationships, dyad-one-on-one aspect of the leader-follower relationship, linkage- connection between the leader and followers One Minute Management - Paul Hersey, Kenneth Blanchard, and Dewey Johnson, leaders should take an extra minute of time to be sure that their focus is on what will have the greatest impact in the positive motivation of followers toward performance and goal acheivement ABC's according to Blanchard & Lorber - Activators-things that need to be done before good performance Behaviors-desired performance Consequences- what follows the desired performance PRICE system that focuses on productivity improvement - Pinpoint, record, involve, coach, evaluate Leader-follower relationships move from one phase to another: - Stranger, Acquaintance, and Maturity Phases Paradigms of Human Interaction - Dr. Stephen R. Covey has developed 6 paradigms of human interaction:
- Win/Win (I win, you win)
- Win/Lose (I win, You lose)
- Lose/Win (I lose, You win)
- Lose/Lose (I lose, You lose)
- Win (I win)
- Win/Win or No deal (I win, You win)
Intergroup Conflict (group) Interorganizational Conflict (two companies) Functional Conflict - conflict that takes place when two parties or groups confront one another in such a way that organizational performance is benefitted Dysfunctional Conflict - conflict that occurs when parties interact in a way that will harm or hinder the accomplishment of an organization's goals and objectives Intrasender Conflict - one person must fulfill two conflicting roles (type faster with less mistakes) Intersender Conflict - two or more sources provide conflicting instructions Person-Role Conflict - your company asks you to fill a role contradicting your personal values Interrole Conflict - an individual must fill conflicting roles Sequential Interdependence - one team or group must complete its work before another team Pooled Interdependence - the performance of all groups and teams in an organization pooled together Reciprocal Interdependence - individuals or teams provide input to other groups or teams in order for overall tasks or goals be accomplished Conflict Process Model - Kenneth Thomas Stage 1. Frustration, Stage 2. Conceptualization, Stage 3. Behavior, Stage 4. Outcome Assertiveness - personal conflict resolution strategy that can be utilized in a number of ways Gorgon's XYZ Model - model to allow individuals to express themselves in terms of how they feel. It involves the verbalization by the affected party that when a specific behavior is performed by the other party in the conflict, something happens, and they feel a certain was as a result. Standing Plan - referred to as policies and procedures Compliance Reports - to educate individuals with regard to corporate issues impacted by legal requirements such as pension plans, tax returns, and other legally-required reporting Five secrets to business success - Richard Branson, founder of Virgin Atlantic.
- enjoy what you are doing, 2. create something that stands out, 3. Create something that everybody who works for you is really proud of, 4. be a good leader, 5. be visible Ethics - principles that govern individual and group behavior Speech Process - involves the human voice and how it is physiologically used and the psychological issues apply to one's level of comfort while speaking to others Speeches - structured addresses generally delivered to groups of individuals. Speeches are typically divided into parts: introduction, body, conclusion Types of Employment Interviews: - Screening Interviews, In-depth interviews, Interviews held by others in the organization, and stress interviews Screening Interviews - human resources department of the organization meets with an individual to determine if he/she is a good candidate for a position In-Depth Interviews - the manager interviews potential candidates for a position in his/her department Interviews held by others in the organization - others in an organization meet person's seriously being considered for employment Stress Interviews - when job candidates are posed difficult questions relating to their potential employment Interviewer - person giving the interview Interviewee - a person who is interviewed Media Presentations - delivered in written, oral, and audio-visual formats News Release - contain interesting and newsworthy material to be acceptable for publication. Covers the five W's-where, when, what, why, how Paralanguage - comprised of vocal messages, or subtext such as: Vocal Tone, Facial Expressions, Facial Movements, Gestures, Touch, Personal Space, Space Arrangement, Posture, Body Stance, Physical Appearance, Personal Attractiveness, and Time Intimate Zone - zone where close friends & family are welcome. (whispering, touch, and comfort) Personal Zone - zone extends to about 4 feet from an individual, friends and associates are generally welcome. Some touching and persons will speak more loudly and use eye contact
