Download Research methods notes and more Lecture notes Research Methods in Psychology in PDF only on Docsity!
INTRODUCTION
Research is one of many different ways of knowing or understanding. It is different from other ways of knowing, such as insight, divine inspiration, and acceptance of authoritative dictates, in that it is a process of systematic inquiry that is designed to collect, analyse, interpret, and use data. Research is conducted for a variety of reasons, including to understand, describe, predict, or control an educational or psychological phenomenon or to empower individuals in such contexts.
What is research? Depending on who you ask, you will likely get very different answers to this seemingly innocuous question. Some people will say that they routinely research different online websites to find the best place to buy goods or services they want. Television news channels supposedly conduct research in the form of viewer polls on topics of public interest such as forthcoming elections or government-funded projects. Undergraduate students research the Internet to find the information they need to complete assigned projects or term papers. Graduate students working on research projects for a professor may see research as collecting or analysing data related to their project. Businesses and consultants research different potential solutions to remedy organizational problems such as a supply chain bottleneck or to identify customer purchase patterns. However, none of the above can be considered “scientific research” unless: (1) it contributes to a body of science, and (2) it follows the scientific method.
METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE
There are many methods of acquiring knowledge. These methods can be grouped into two main types: a) Everyday/Non-Scientific ways of knowing b) Reasoning and c) Scientific method.
a) Everyday/Non-Scientific ways of knowing
These methods are based on faith, accepting things at face value. It is relying on knowledge that has not been tested. These methods include the following:
i) Authority
One of the most common sources of knowledge is the authorities in different spheres of knowledge. In many societies people rely on the wisdom of elders who are recognized as having better understanding of the world than ordinary members of society. Thus, statements and pronouncements by experts in various areas of knowledge are seldom challenged or questioned. Examples of such people are elderly people in rural areas, heads of religious organizations and dictators. A major weakness of this method is that authorities in most cases tend to make false statements in order to justify and preserve their status.
ii) Method of tenacity or custom/tradition
Many people tend to believe things because people in their society regard them as the truth, even when there are clearly conflicting facts. They even go to the extent of inferring “new” knowledge from beliefs that may be false. They know to be true because they hold firmly to it, because they have always known it to be true.” As a result, some people hold to certain things as true because most people in society assume those things to be true.
iii) Mystical method
In this method the correctness of the knowledge is assumed to reside in the supernatural source. The knowledge producers such as traditional medicine men and diviners are an authority because they claim that they are able to receive and decipher messages from ancestral spirits. To convince people that they actually communicate with the spirits of dead ancestors, they use rituals, ceremonies and unusual language. Like authority, this approach is based on faith.
iv) Method of intuition
Intuition is the perception, or explanation or insight into phenomena by instinct. In other words, it is the ability to gain new knowledge without conscious reasoning or rational process.
v) Experience
Human beings learn new knowledge through their experiences in life. People tend to believe that what is in their mind and that a social encounter they have had is generally true. For example, a person who has been swindled by a policeman believes that most policemen are dishonest.
b) Reasoning (Rationality)
Reasoning is the second category of methods used by human beings to understand their environment. Reason is a source of knowledge from which human beings derive universally valid judgments that are consistent with one another. By reasoning is usually meant the ability to expound one’s thoughts logically and to make conclusions. Rationalists believe that knowledge is innate in human beings and pure reason is sufficient to produce verifiable knowledge. Though they acknowledge the contribution of senses to knowledge in the form of bare facts and isolated impressions, they believe that the intellect interprets and organises these bits and pieces of information into what we can call reliable and significant knowledge.
There are two types of reasoning: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. Deduction is a form of reasoning that moves from a general statement to a particular instance. It draws implications from one or a number of basic axioms or assumptions. The syllogism is an example of deductive reasoning. The major premise of a syllogism takes the form of a general statement, such as “All men are mortal.” This is a universal statement, which
c) Scientific method/Scientific research
What is science?
Etymologically, the word “science” is derived from the Latin word Scientia meaning knowledge. Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry that is acquired using “the scientific method” (the scientific method is described further below). Science can be grouped into two broad categories: natural science and social science. Natural science is the science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as light, objects, matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the human body. Natural sciences can be further classified into physical sciences, earth sciences, life sciences, and others. Physical sciences consist of disciplines such as physics (the science of physical objects), chemistry (the science of matter), and astronomy (the science of celestial objects). Earth sciences consist of disciplines such as geology (the science of the earth). Life sciences include disciplines such as biology (the science of human bodies) and botany (the science of plants). In contrast, social science is the science of people or collections of people, such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their individual or collective behaviours. Social sciences can be classified into disciplines such as psychology (the science of human behaviours), sociology (the science of social groups), and economics (the science of firms, markets, and economies).
This is a systematic investigation of a question, a phenomenon, and/or a problem following some logical sequence or principles. Research is defined as a process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
According to McMillan (1992, p.3), the scientific approach to research is objective, systematic and testable and is relatively uninfluenced by personal beliefs, opinions and feelings. Rather, science seeks to obtain knowledge objectively by relying on verifiable observation and experimentation.
Kerlinger and Howard (2000, p. 14) defined scientific research as systematic, controlled, empirical, amoral, public, and critical investigation of natural phenomena.
Forms of Scientific Inquiry
Depending on a researcher’s training and interest, scientific inquiry may take one of two possible forms: inductive or deductive. In inductive research, the goal of a researcher is to infer theoretical concepts and patterns from observed data. In deductive research, the goal of the researcher is to test concepts and patterns known from theory using new empirical data. Hence, inductive research is also called theory-building research, and deductive research is theory-testing research. Note here that the goal of theory-testing is not just to test a theory, but possibly to refine, improve, and extend it. Note that inductive and deductive research are two halves of the research cycle that constantly iterates between theory and observations. You cannot do inductive or deductive research if you are not familiar with both the theory and data components of research. Naturally, a complete
researcher is one who can traverse the entire research cycle and can handle both inductive and deductive research. It is important to understand that theory-building (inductive research) and theory-testing (deductive research) are both critical for the advancement of science. Elegant theories are not valuable if they do not match with reality. Likewise, mountains of data are also useless until they can contribute to the construction to meaningful theories. Though both inductive and deductive research are important for the advancement of science, it appears that inductive (theory-building) research is more valuable when there are few prior theories or explanations, while deductive (theory- testing) research is more productive when there are many competing theories of the same phenomenon and researchers are interested in knowing which theory works best and under what circumstances. Theory building and theory testing are particularly difficult in the social sciences, given the imprecise nature of the theoretical concepts, inadequate tools to measure them, and the presence of many unaccounted factors that can also influence the phenomenon of interest. It is also very difficult to refute theories that do not work.
Unlike theories in the natural sciences, social science theories are rarely perfect, which provides numerous opportunities for researchers to improve those theories or build their own alternative theories. Conducting scientific research, therefore, requires two sets of skills – theoretical and methodological – needed to operate in the theoretical and empirical levels respectively. Methodological skills ("know-how") are relatively standard, invariant across disciplines, and easily acquired through doctoral programs. However, theoretical skills ("know-what") is considerably harder to master, requires years of observation and reflection, and are tacit skills that cannot be “taught” but rather learned though experience.
Properties of Scientific Research
The following are the main properties of scientific research:
- Scientific research is empirical. Only knowledge gained through experience or the senses – touch, sight, hearing, smell or taste is acceptable. The empirically oriented social scientist goes into the social world and makes observations about how people live and behave. However, Nachmias (1992) cautioned against interpreting empiricism in the narrow definition of the five senses – touch, smell, hearing, listening and seeing. (p. 8).
- It is systematic and logical. Observations are done systematically one at a time, starting with description, explanation and finally prediction. In addition, the correct order must be followed.
- It is replicable. Since the observation is objective anyone carrying out a study in the same circumstances should come up with the same findings.
- Research is self-correcting. It has in-built mechanisms to protect investigators from error as far as is humanly possible. In addition research procedures and results are open to public scrutiny by other researchers.
should be able to describe it, predict its occurrence and observe factors that cause its occurrence with certainty and accuracy.
- Enable theory development. This involves formulating concepts, laws and generalizations about a given phenomenon. Research is also conducted in order to confirm or validate existing theories.
1.1 NATURE OF RESEARCH Research involves the systematic collection and analysis of data about learning and teaching for the purpose of description, explanation and prediction of the object or behaviour of the study.
Role of research
- Research gives an accurate account of the characteristics of particular programmes in education.
- It identifies relevant and appropriate messages and contents for different target groups.
- Identifies constraints to the implementation of an educational programme.
- Can be used to determine actions and innovations that have an impact on the target groups.
- Provides useful data for programme planning.
- Gives new knowledge on how specific educational programmes are working.
Classification of Research
Research can be classified according to its purpose or method used/procedures employed.
Classification of research by purpose
Under this classification, research may be basic research or applied research.
i) Basic research
It is directed towards increase in knowledge. When successful, basic research results in a fuller understanding of the subject matter under study and the generation of theories. The primary aim of the investigator is not to produce data for practical use, but to enhance understanding of the subject matter under study.
ii) Applied research Applied research is directed towards practical applications of knowledge and when successful results in directives for development of blueprints. It is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating its usefulness in solving problems i.e.
developing knowledge that is directly useful to practitioners. Applied research may be action research, operations research or research and development.
a) Action research
It is a systematic study of an educational situation with a view to improving the quality of educational practice. The main purpose is to solve educational problems through the application of scientific methods. It is not concerned with whether the results are generalized to any other setting since its major goal is to seek a solution to a given problem.
b) Operational research (OR)
It is used to compare educational interventions that are designed to achieve similar objectives. Example: A project designed to test whether students would be more likely to have more positive attitudes toward environmental education as a separate subject compared to those who learned Geography and Social Studies.
c) Research and development (R&D)
It is carried out in order to develop effective educational products such as pupil’s textbooks, teacher’s guides, media programmes and teaching strategies.
Classification by research method
Research can be classified according to the procedures employed and research questions raised. The following are the most commonly used research procedures: i) Descriptive research This involves the collection of data in order to test hypotheses or to answer questions concerning the current status of the subjects in the study. It describes the way things are e.g. a description of possible behaviour, attitudes, values and characteristics. ii) Historical research This is the systematic collection and evaluation of data about past events so as to identify causes and effects of those events in order to understand and explain present events. Historical researchers do not gather data by administering instruments to individuals; they seek data that is already available. iii) Case studies A case study consists of an intensive observation of a single subject in a particular setting. It is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, institution or phenomenon. iv) Correlation research It involves collecting data to determine whether or not a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. It involves the collection of data on two or more variables on the same group of subjects and computing a correlation coefficient. The relationship between the variables is studied without making any attempt to influence them. v) Causal-comparative studies
This is a combination of quantitative and qualitative research paradigms. A researcher can adopt mixed method research because of the following reasons:
- Researcher’s competency in both qualitative and quantitative research
- The nature of the research problem
- Time available
- When dealing with sensitive issues that numbers cannot explain
- When in-depth data is required
N/B There is no research that is purely quantitative or qualitative. Most researches adopt the mixed method research paradigm.
Basic elements in Research
1. Population Population refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects having common observable characteristic e.g. all form four students in the country, all teachers in public primary schools in a district etc. 2. Sample A sample is a relatively small group of individuals/objects chosen in a scientific fashion to represent a relatively large group of individuals (population) which the researcher is interested in studying e.g. eighty public primary teachers in a particular district. 3. Sampling Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals selected represent the large group from which they were selected. 4. A constant A constant is a characteristic of objects, people or events that does not vary e.g. temperature at which water boils is a constant. 5. Variable A variable is a characteristic of objects, people or events that can take on different values. It can vary in quantity such as height, weight or in quantity such as skin texture, gender, occupation, type of school, marital status.
Types of variables i) Independent and dependent variables An independent variable is one which the researcher manipulates (controls) in order to determine its effect or influence on another variable. Also called predictor variable. A
dependent variable is one whose occurrence is influenced by the independent variable. E.g. the influence on hours studied (Independent variable) on performance in a statistic test (dependent variable). ii) Discrete and continuous variables A discrete variable takes finite/exact/whole values e.g. number of children, number of classrooms. Continuous variables take any value within an infinite series of possible values e.g. weight, height etc. iii) Extraneous and control variables These are variables which influence the results of a study when they are not controlled for. However, if the extraneous variable is included in the study, it is referred to as a control variable. The introduction of a control variable in a research study increases the validity of the data and therefore it leads to more convincing generalizations.
6. Concept A concept is an interpretation/idea/image of a particular phenomenon e.g. professional qualification, performance, intelligence, gender, religious sister etc. 7. Conceptual definition This is defining a concept using other concepts. This approach is not good in research. 8. Operational definition This is defining a variable as used in context. One defines the variable according to how it will be measured. It is the description of the operation that will be used in measuring the variable. 9. Research problem A problem is a question of interest which can be answered through the collection of data. It is an intellectual challenge that requires answers through collection and analysis of data. A problem is not a difficulty being experienced. 10. Hypothesis This is a tentative answer to a research problem. In quantitative research, a hypothesis is expressed in terms of a relationship between two or more variables. 11. Theory A theory is a set of concepts and the interrelations that are assumed to exist among those concepts. Hypotheses are developed from theories.
Stages in the Research Process The research process is cyclic and involves the following stages:
Diagrammatic representation of the research process
Figure 1
1. Identifying a research problem
The first step in identifying a research problem is to identify the broad area that one is interested in which is normally one’s field of specialisation e.g. Mathematics education, curriculum and instruction, teacher education etc. After selecting the broad area, you then identify a specific topic within the broad area. This should be done after a thorough review of literature in the broad area. After identifying the topic, narrow it down to a specific researchable problem.
Sources of research problems
a) Searching existing/related literature-textbooks and articles b) Existing theories: One may want to validate or invalidate existing generalizations or principles. c) Discussions with experts: Discussions in class or seminars may reveal current problems that could be researched e.g. teachers, curriculum specialists, educational administrators, researchers and lecturers d) Previous research studies: Previous studies normally indicate areas of further research e) Personal experience/direct observation of the needs of educational programmes
f) Media: Issues that are frequently reported in the media may form a basis for a research problem. g) Brainstorming with colleagues: This happens when two or more people generate ideas for research.
Examples of research topics/problems
- Factors affecting the teaching of Mathematics in Kenya’s secondary schools
- Effect of school feeding program on enrolment in primary schools in Eastern Province
- Influence of resource management skills on the performance of community based projects in rural areas in Kenya Characteristics of a good research problem
- Should be directional i.e. it clearly and concisely shows the independent and dependent variables. Hence, which one is influencing the other
- Should not targeting a very wide or very narrow area
- Should generate a number of more specific research questions
- Should be one which can be investigated through collection and analysis of data
- Should have potential significance i.e. should lead to findings that have widespread implications in a particular area
- Should relate to an academic discipline such as mathematics, science or education
- Should have a basis in the research literature
- Should be one that you can carry out within the available timeframe and budget
- Sufficient data should be available or can be obtained to address it.
The best way to define a research problem is to ask yourself the question, “What do I want to find out?” It is recommended to first state the problem in form of a question e.g. what factors affect the teaching of peace education to the youth in Kenya?
Narrowing the research problem/topic
Research problems are usually narrowed down to manageable topics.
Broad problem/topic
Narrow the problem
Discipline The effect of alternative forms of discipline on primary school children. Corporal punishment as a factor in learner performance Causes of disciplinary problems in secondary schools Language Acquisition
Home language as a factor in the acquisition of other languages. Cultural influences in second language acquisition.
Hypotheses
A hypothesis states possible relationships or differences between two or more variables or concepts. They are derived from existing theories, previous research, personal observations or experiences. A study can have one or more hypotheses depending on the variables in the study.
Types of hypotheses
Hypotheses can be null hypotheses or alternative hypotheses.
i) Null hypothesis/statistical hypothesis
A null hypothesis states that there is no relationship or difference between variables or concepts. It is symbolized H 0 e.g.
H 0 : There is no significant relationship between students’ performance in Mathematics and Physics. ii) Alternative hypothesis
An alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship or difference between the concepts or variables. It is symbolized by H 1 e.g.
H 1 : There is a significant relationship between students’ performance in Mathematics and Physics. An alternative hypothesis can be directional or non-directional. Alternative directional hypothesis It specifies the nature of the relationship or difference between variables e.g. H 2 : There is a positive relationship between remedial tuition and pupils’ achievement in Mathematics
Alternative non-directional hypothesis
It is also referred to as research hypothesis. It simply states that there is a relationship or difference between variables but does not show the direction in which the variables are related or differ e.g.
H 3 : There is a difference in the performance of national examinations between children from rural primary schools and children from urban primary schools.
Qualities of a good hypothesis
- Must state clearly and briefly the expected relationship or difference between variables
- Must be based on sound rationale derived from theory, previous research or professional experience
- Must be consistent with common sense or generally accepted truth
- Must be testable- data can be collected to support or fail to support hypothesis
- Must be testable within a reasonable time
- Must be related to empirical phenomena
- Must be simple and concise
- Must be consistent with the purpose statement and objectives
Conceptual Framework/Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Framework
It is a model that shows the interrelatedness of the independent and dependent variables of the study. This is either presented graphically or diagrammatically. The purpose of conceptual framework is to enable the reader to quickly see the proposed relationships between the variables. The diagram should be followed by a narration explaining it for clarity.
Figure 2
BASIC EDUCATION
Primary Education
Secondary Education
POLICIES TO BE FORMULATED
Secondary Education made Compulsory
Distribution of Teaching- Learning resources in schools
Adequate physical facilities in schools
EXPECTED RESULT
Transition rates from Primary to Secondary school increased
EFFECT
All Primary school graduates access Secondary Education
WHAT SHOULD BE DONE
Build more Secondary Schools and expand the existing ones
Figure 3
USUAL STEPS IN THE SELECTION OF A RESEARCH DESIGN
The following are the usual steps in the selection of a research design. First, the researcher should consider the type of information needed to answer the main question and specific research questions. After specifying the type of information needed to answer research questions, the research should identify an appropriate strategy through which to obtain the required information. In selecting a research design the researcher should ensure that the proposed methods and analyses are in conformity with the levels of understanding of potential readers of the final report.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Three basic types of research design are:
- Experimental Design
- Quasi-experimental Design
- Survey Design
- Ex Post Facto Design
EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
The effects of a programme on the participants can be measured accurately only if the researcher knows what would have happened without the programme. Because it is not possible for the researcher to observe what would have happened to the participants themselves if they had not enrolled in the programme, a group of non-participants in the same population must be identified. The effects of the programme are then ascertained by comparing the behaviour of the group that is particularly in the programme (the treatment of the experimental group) with that of the selected group (the control group). The allocation of individuals to the experimental and control groups should be at “random”. Incorporation of randomization into the design is so important that designs are categorized according to the way in which the subjects are selected: random assignment (classified as an experimental design) and non-random assignment (classified as a quasi-experimental design).
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Experimental designs are used to study cause and effect relationships among two or more variables. The main difference between a true experimental design and other designs is the fact that research units are assigned to the treatment and control conditions at random.
The main purpose of experimental research is to study causal links; to determine whether a given variable x has an effect on another variable y, or whether changes in one variable produce changes in another variable.
The three essential elements of an experimental design are:
- Randomization – The researcher assigns participants to different groups.
- Manipulation – The researcher does something at least to some of the participants in the research.
- Control – the researcher introduces one or more controls over the experimental situation. In experimental studies one group, the experimental or treatment group, receive the treatment the other group; a control group receives a neutral treatment. The two groups are compared before the treatment using a pre-test. After the treatment, a post-test is administered to the two groups.
This situation is presented diagrammatically below.
